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— AND — 



©rijenta! J^wtnal 



VOLUME XXVI. 



JANUARY- NOVEMBER, 1904. 



Rev. Stephen D. PEET, Ph. D., Editor. 



CHICAGO! 
488 E. Fifty-Seventh Street. 

1904. 



\ 



.« ^ 



V 



-• t « t 



TABbE OF CONTENTS. 



VOLUME XXVI. 



JANUARY AND FEBRUARY. 

Paf«. 
THE TREE OF LIFE AMONG ALL NATIONS. By Stephen D. 

Pect. (Illustrat«d.) I 

ROMAN DISCOVERIES IN GREAT BRITAIN. By Joseph 

Offord 17 

LEGENDS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. By C. Staniland 

Wake 23 

SOME NOTES ON THE ETHNOLOGY OF THE NEW 

HEBRIDES. By John Eraser 28 

THE RUINS OF INDIAN CHURCH IN BRITISH HONDURAS. 

By Rev. F. de P. Castells 33 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. By Alexander F. Chamberlain. 

Sculptured Stones of the J ura 38 

Disentis Type 39 

Roman Skulls 39 

Okapi and Set 40 

The Negro Foot 40 

Suckling 40 

Painted Rune Stones 40 

LITERARY NOTES— 

The Red Men of Brazil. (Illustrated.) 41 

Native Tribes of the Philippines. (Illustrated) 46 

editorials- 
Superstition A Means of Defense 4B 

Illustrated Books for the Holidays 57 

Books on Early American Scenes 59 

The Preservation of the Monuments 60 

EDITORIAL NOTES 61 

RECENT DISCOVERIES 61 

BOOK REVIEWS— 

Indians of the Painted Desert Region. By George Wharton 

James ^ 62 

Vacation Days in Greece. By Rufus B. Richardson 66 

Algonquin Tales. By Edgerton R. Young 67 

Champlain» the Founder of New France. By E. Asa Dix 69 

Brant and Red Jacket. By Edward Eggleston 69 

How George Rogers Clark Won the Northwest. By R. G. Thw.iitcs. 69 



!▼. TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

MARCH AND APRIL. 

FRONTISPIECES— Palacb at Pibdras Nbgras and Palace 
WITH Columns in thb Umasintla Valley. 

DISCOVERIES IN EGYPT. By Joseph Oflford 73 

ANCI ENT CITIES OF EGYPT. By William E. Curtis 77 

:SITE OF MASCOUTEN REDISCOVERED. By Rev. Thomas 

Clithero 84 

THE PHILIPPINE TREE-DWELLERS. (Illustrated.) 88 

ARCHITECTURE IN THE P ROTO- HISTORIC AGE. By Rev. 

Stephen D. Peet. (Illustrated.) 8q 

AMERICAN ORIGINS. By C. Staniland Wake 105 

ANTHROPOLOGY AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION 116 

A MICHIGAN EARTH-WORK AND ITS IMPENDING LOSS. 

By Harlan I. Smith 121 

HUMAN BONES FOUND NEAR GALVESTON A Letter Com- 
municated by Mr. james Douglas to the Bulletin of the Ameri- 
can Geographical Society. December. IQ03 1 22 

ARCH>:OLOi^.IC.\L NOTES— 

A Prehistoric Village 1 24 

Roman Road in Britam 1 24 

Prehistoric Studies m Austria 124 

Kjim.lv Burial Grounds 1 24 

Cairns and Tumuli 1 24 

The Excavations at Geier 1 24 

OTchv»aienos 1 25 

Cbisese Jade * 125 

ElMTORLXL NOrE>~ 

H^ksoksand H:tv.?es . .. . 125 

ChedorUomer and Han'ta-:rab: .... 25 

Aiserlcan Or»:^ns . . 126 

Tbe « b. 01. World .126 

EDirv.^2^:AL- 

Thk Dzsrx-.BiL-Tiosi .^F FiLE-I'^ELLiNiis. I/.^j^crated 127 

BOOK REVIEWS- 

ri< y-jrssoc E=:?*res •'ivil?>Ioc c: tie B.t-Ie ' IW \V S: Chad 
£V:scavea 131 

>l,ua'$ FUce -a :ie l"a:»erse. B> A.:>eNi I_. Wallace 131 

V-.r^'ata: A H:*:.-nr .:c tb« Feccle. V^x *oha Es:e* C,v« . . . i ^ 
A.dA3dr*Ka Kixamecer Fra^eriis^ V\ Kld^ar '. CTvN?c*peec ... :';3 
X^* I>ecea2La. Pibi cavoc* 0^^ek Far«ri tree: :he Cairo Mu~ 
fo^pecber wc'2 Fa?*-: oc Kiscau Ejvp: :roc: A:rir can 

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Go.«i r!swa:tes 

-J-rMT-.i ?^^•^is;^? f-'-c :^« x?:^-^-'.- ,": K? 'c* :,* i C^*i-a* 
S'* r ^. C^a.i:><'~.a.T ... 



^^3 
'54 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. v. 
MAY AND JUNE. 

Paf«. 

.MPARISON OF CODICES WITH PICTOGRAPHS. By 

Stephen D. Pcct. (Illustrated.) I37 

THE ABSTRUSE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE NUMBERS 

THIRTY-SIX AND TWELVE. By H. L. Stoddard. (IIlus.). 153 

USE AND DOMESTICATION OF THE HORSE. By Alexander 

F. Chamberlan 165 

THE DROOZ OF SYRIA. By Chom-elHowic 167 

THE STORY OF POMPEII. By Frank L Walker 169 

EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY IN BABYLONIA. By 

Robert F. Harper \^^ 

DISCOVERIES IN EGYPT 180 

PREHISTORIC CHINA. By Miriam Zieber 181 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. Bv Alexander F. Chamberlain. 

Ancient Latium 182 

Anthropology in Education 182 

Haricot Beans 182 

Necropolis of Kiicevac 183 

Race 183 

Saharan Prehistory 183 

Vandalism 184 

EDITORIAL— 

The Suastika and Fire Worship in America i£6 

ARCHAEOLOGICAL NOTES— 

Discoveries at Pergamos 193 

Recent Discoveries at Ephesus 193 

Hyksos-Hittites 194 

A Floating Biidge 194 

The Russian Peasants I94 

Ramses II 194 

The Babylonian Sabbath 194 

A Map of the Mound of Kadesh i95 

Prehistoric Rock Carvings 195 

Italian Discoveries at Phaestos, Crete 195 

Discoveries in Italy 195 

Excavations in the Forum at Rome 195 

A Roman Fort 195 

A Bronze Chariot from Nurica. 195 

Ancient Road and Stone Seats in New Zealand 196 

BOOK REVIEWS— 

A History of the Mississippi Valley from Its Discovery to the 
End of Foreign Domination. By J. R, Spears and A. H. Clark. 

Transactions of the Illinois State Historical Society for 1903 — 197 

Globus 198 

The Eighteenth Report of the Bureau of Ethnology 198 

BOOKS RECEIVED iq8 



▼i. TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

JULY AND AUGUST. p^^. 

ETHNOGRAPHY OF ART IN AMERICA. By Stephen t). Pcct. 

(Illustrated.) ^^ 

NIHANCAN. THE WHITE MAN. By C Staniland Wake 225 

A PREHISTORIC SCANDINAVIAN SUN CHARIOT. By 

Joseph OfiEord. (Illustrated.) ^3* 

SHELL HEAPS OF THE LOWER FRASER RIVER, BRITISH 

COLUMBIA. By Harlan I. Smith ^35 

RECENT DISCOVERIES IN ROME. By H. Stuart Jones 236 

MONUMENTS OF PRIMITIVE PHARAOHS. By Joseph Offofd . 240 

FINDS IN EGYPT. By F. Legge ^^ 

THE OXYRHYNCHUS PAPYRI. Extract from Lord Cromer's 

Report ^^3 

ALL THE STATES AT THE WORLDS FAIR Selected 244 

arch^IlGlogical notes— 

Deircl-Bahari ^^^ 

Ancient Mechanical Device ^* 

Cave Men as Arliits '^^ 

Chinese Decorative Art ^^^ 

Relics of the Spanish Armada ^4o 

The Navy of Tarshish 246 

Paleolithic Skeleton Found m England 247 

Pergamon 247 

Crete 247 

Babylon 247 

Asia Minor 247 

EphenuH 248 

The liabyionian Kxpedition 248 

KDITOKIAL 

Ai(rM,iMM.<)<«ir:AL Kkskakciiks in Costa Rica. (Illustrated.). 249 

hOr)K KKVIKWS 

V.%1 rivafionrn en la Calle de Kscalerillas. By Senor Batres 257 

\'.%yUifini lofim de Monte Alban. By Senor Batres 257 

Vmiiii /t lo« MoniniirntoH arqucologicos de "La Quemada" Za- 

r Mlr< M«, hy Sr-nof Hiitres 257 

'\'\A\iu f hy J.rnor limrcii. Reviewed by Prof. F. Starr 257 

Huiory of tli«* Kxiifdition Under the Command of Captains 
L«wu rffid ( lurk to tbo Sources of the Missouri; Acrost the 
\'tn\ty MoiMii.iih«, howM ihr Columbia River to the Pacific in 
iH',t iK//*. A rr|ii|fii of thr edition of 1814, to which all the 
wtuUrtft of tlM- miiHition < ontributed 259 



44> 



^.M'llMhlK AND OCTOBER. 
KKON'f ff,IMK( K Vm '«/ rii.,M WnwT I^ascadk and Colonnade, 

Tiff'. NAVAMOOf/f/,|M fJMil';N|). Hy C. Staniland Wake 265 

A MAi^H Af, AMfi Mf^flfrAf, PAPYRUS OF THE THIRD 

I \UU'l UMV \',/ |i,,*p|, Off Old 271 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

SEPTEMBER AND OCTOBER-Contlnued. 

1 
THE TEN TEMPLES OF ABYDOS. By W. M. Flinders Pelrie 
PERSONAL DIVINITIES AND NATURE POWERS IN 

AMERICA. By Stephen D. Peet. Ililusiraied.) 

SOME RECENT ITALIAN ARCH^OLOGICAL INVESTIGA- 
TIONS. By Alexander F. Chamberlain 

ANTIQUITY OF LONDON AS A CITY. By H. B. Whealley , , 

A REVOLUTIONARY INCIDENT. By Jean Urquhardl 

THE HERMITAGE AT THE WORLD'S FAIR. ST. LOUIS... 

THE EMPEROR OF JAPAN. By William E. Gurus 

PREHISTORIC ANIMALS 

THE ANIQUITV OF ROPE 

AN EXHIBITION OF ANCIENT ART 

EXPEDITION TO LAKE CHAD , 

THE PYGMIES OF THE PHILIPPINES 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES, By Alexander F. Chamberlain. 

Anthropological Bibliography ol North Africa 

Dravidian Element Among the Bataks 

Hungarian Ethnology 

Indo-European Origins 

Moravian Archaeology 

Prehistoric Mining 

EDITORIAL— 

PoTTBRV Portraits. (Illusiriied.) 

EDITORIAL NOTES 

BOOK REVIEWS- 

Traditions of the Arapaho. By George A. Doriey and Alfred L. 
Kroeber 

Traditions of the Osage. By George A. Dorsey 

The Oraibi Powamer Ceremony. By H. R. Volh 

Concerning Book- Plates By Zella Allen DixEon 

The Art of Piiti Palace. By Julia de Wolf Addison 

Eighteenth Annual Report oE the Bureau of American EthnoloKV. 
By J. W. Powell 

Twentieth Annual Report of Ibe Bureau of American Ethnology. 
By J. W. Powell 

Kalhlmel Texts. By Frani Boas 

Tsimshian Texts. By Frant Boas 

History of the Moorish Empire m Europe. By P. Scott. . ..' 

Natick Dictionary. By James Hammond Trumbult 

Penniylvania. By Barr Ferree 

History T«. The Whitman Saved Oregon Story. By William J. 

I Martball 

^^H totinial de la Soclete Des Americanistes de Paris 

^^^h Vatican Manuicripi. By Due de Loubet 



i 



iriii. TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

NOVEMBER AND DECEMBER. 

p«f«. 
FRONTISPIECES— Dancers Dressed as Wolves and Trans- 
formation Ceremony. 

THE PERUVIAN ASTERISMS AND THEIR RELATION TO 

THE RITUAL. By Stansbury Hagcr 320 

HYMNS TO TAMMUZ: A NEW RECOVERY OF BABYLON- 
LITERATURE. By Joseph Offord 337 

PERUVIAN STORY OF THE DELUGE 342 

THE STORY OF GILGAMES AND THE DELUGE 344 

RACES AND RELIGIONS IN AMERICA. By Stephen D. Pect. 

(Illustrated.) 345 

THE MAYAS OF CENTRAL AMERICA. By C. Staniland Wake. 361 

"DENEHOLES" OF ESSEX AND KENT. ENGLAND. By A. 

L. Lrwis. (Illustrated.) 364 

ORIGIN OF THE ART OF WRITING. By Henry Proctor 365 

SOME PAPERS READ BEFORE THE BRITISH ASSOCIA- 
TION IN igoA 367 

SOPHISTRY ON THE SUBJECT OF COMPARATIVE RE- 
LIGIONS. By Frederick Bliss 370 

PROFESSOR CURTISS 373 

ARABIA AS A FIELD FOR EXPLORATION 374 

EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM. By 

W. St. Chad Boscawen 375 

RECENT EXCAVATIONS AT CARTHAGE 376 

editorial- 
Transformation Myths. (Illustrated) 377 

RECENT DISCOVERIES 385 

ARCHitOLOGICAL NOTES— 

Village Sites in Ontario : 386 

Game Drives 386 

The Last of the Mohegans 386 

The Antiquity of Civilization 386 

Bone Cave 387 

Transformation Among the Tribes of the Northwest Coast 387 

LITERARY NOTES 387 

IN MEMORIAM— Dr. John Fraser 387 

BOOK REVIEWS— 

The Peruvian Star- Chart of Salcamayhua. By Stansbury Hagar. 388 

Funeral Urns from Oaxaca. By Marshall H. Saville 388 

Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society. Pait XVII., 

Vol.11 388 

Archaeological Researches in Yucatan. By E. H. Thompson.. . 389 
Exploration of Mounds, Coahoma County, Mississippi. By 

Charles Peabody 389 

Exploration of Jacob's Cavern, McDonald County, Missouri By 

Charles Peabody and W. K. Moorehead 389 

The Oraibi Summer Snake Ceremony. By H. R. Voth 390 

The Stanley McCormick Hop! EsCpedition. By Geo. A. Dorsey. 390 

American Journal of Archaeology, Series II., Vol. VIII., No. a. . . 390 

BOOKS RECEIVED 390 



Vol. XXVI. January and February, 1904. 



THE TREE OF LIFE AMONG ALL NATIONS. 

^H BY STEPHEN D. PEET, PH. D. 

^^ There were two trees in the Garden of Eden, one of which 
was called the "'Tree of Life," and the other, the "Tree of 
Good and Evil. The Tree of Life was evidently the symbol of 
the presence of God, and was equivalent to what is called the 
Shekinah. There is 00 particular description given of it in 
Genesis, but elsewhere in the Bible it is described as full of 
light. The brightness which pervaded it, extended beyond it 
and made il a place of glory. The Tree of Knowledge of 
Good and Evil was apparently an ordinary tree which bore 
fruit. It matters not what kind of fruit it bore, but it was such 
that the first pair could eat it and find it pleasant to the taste. 

Thf two trees were in great contrast; the first was refjarded 
as a source of life and an embodiment of a divine person and 
presence; the other tree proved to be a symbol of death, and 
It was dangerous to partake of its fruit. It proved to be a 
source of great calamity, for the first pair were at once filled 
with a sense of shame and realized that they were naked; they 
were filled with a sense of guilt and were afraid of the Being 
who had placed them in the Garden and given them liberty to 
partake of all the trees, except the single one. They heard 
the voice of God walking in the Garden, and were afraid and 
fled from his presence. They were banished from Eden, and 
cherubim with flaming swords were placed in the gateway. 

The story is an interesting one and represents the first state 
of man, as one of innocence and purity. Conscience was un- 
disturbed; nakedness was without shame; innocence was in the 
heart of the first pair; purity was in their life. They were like 
children, who have not felt the sense of shame, and who trust 
their parents, and who think of God without fear. They seem 
to have dwelt in peace with the animals, and were even per- 
mitted to give them names; but after partaking of the forbid- 
den fruit they realized their guilt and felt that God was justi- 
fied in banishing them from his presence. Nothing is said in 
the first or second chapters about Redemption or Restoration; 
but, on the other hand, banishment from Eden soon bore its 



2 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

fruits. They had no children in Eden, but after their banish* 
ment, two children were born, Cain and Abel. The one reprc* 
sented evil passions, and the carrying out of selfish desires 
under the control of passion; the other represented innocence^ 
as he was full of reverence and free from passion, but suffered 
death at the han'd of his brother. Greater guilt came upon 
the human race because of this deed, and the descendants of 
the first pair were soon scattered. The children of God and 
the daughters of men were separated. Cain bore the mark of 
his guilt upon his face, but he was protected from the avenger 
by it. He went out and built a city. 

From this time there arose two classes: those who dwelt in 
the fields and were shepherds and herdsmen, who lived by culti- 
vating the soil; the other dwelt in the walled towns and be- 
came subject to authority. Marriage, however, took place 
between the two classes, and the sway of evil increased — there 
was violence and crime, and as a result God destroyed the 
world with a flood. The story conveys a most valuable lesson, 
in reference to the consequence of disobedience and yielding 
to temptation. The result was that those who were obedient 
and served God were saved in the ark. but those who were dis- 
obedient were overthrown and perished in the Flood. The 
altar was erected upon the summit of the mountains, the rain 
bow spanned the sky, and there was salvation amid destruction. 

The narrative does not end here, for history is supposed to 
have begun when Noah and his family began to repeople the 
earth. The prehistoric condition of man is, however, hinted at 
by the Scripture narrative, though, perhaps, in somewhat figu- 
rative langfuage. The picture is one which reminds us of the 
Arcadia of the Greeks, and is suggestive of the Golden Age. 
Other nations and tribes have traditions of the Flood, and of 
the survival of the first parents by means of an ark, which, in 
some respects, reminds us of the story of Noah and the Ark. 
The majority of the myths and symbols contained in this and 
other continents are suggestive of the Flood and the survival 
of the first parents from the Flood, but there is no myth which 
contains so much that is fundamental and so suggestive of the 
real truth as does this story. 

It seems remarkable that the first few chapters in the Bible 
should contain so much of that system of religion which* we 
have inherited from our fathers, and that we should find so 
much contrast between this system and the mythologies which 
prevailed among the various nations of the earth. The per- 
sonality of God; the disobedience which resulted in banish- 
ment; the beginning of sacrifice and the erection of altars; 
the separation of men into two classes — obedient and dis- 
obedient, are points which we have inherited from our fathers, 
and come from this part of the Bible. Other races and peo- 
ples have traditions of the Flood and the survival of the few 
and the repeopling of the world, but all that part of the nar- 



THE TREE OF LIFE AMONG ALL NATIONS. J 

which refers to the banishment from Eden, the sacrifice 
ot inooccnce and the trial for the guilty, and the violence and 
corruption which followed, is either absent from mythology, or 
is referred to in the most general terms, under the story of th« 
war of the Titans, "" ^ 

The narrative ii suggestive of principles which we have 
been taught from our childhood, but which are only dimly ap- 
prehended by heathen nations. This, however, is not the 
point which we are to discuss at present, for the archxologist 
IS not supposed to settle the questions upon sociology or moral 
science; but is to investigate the facts as to material objects- 
which have been preserved. The question is whether there is 
^^j|ny evidence that there was such a thing as the Tree of Life, 




^pltd whether that symbol has been perpetuated. The answer 
'comes to us from various sources, made forcible by the various 
recent discoveries at Knossos and other localities. 

Mr. Arthur Evans discovered at Knossos a miniature sanctu- 
ary including a pillared shrine and an altar, with horns and a 
portable scat for the divinity. He says that the Epiphanies 
and visions of Divine presence by means of trees were the 
most familiar of Old Testament revelations. 

The account in Genesis gives to us a view of a primitive 
state o( society, but it has been con6rmcd by the discoveries 
made in the East. 

I. We find that the garden was surrounded by four rivers,, 
■bowing that the number four was sacred it the time, exactly 
as it is among all primitive people. The region near the moutb 



4 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

of the Tigris has been called a paradise od account of its fer* 
tility and beauty. The four rivers have been identified. 

2. We find that the tree was regarded as a symbol of life, 
and was very suggestive, exactly as it is among all primitive 
races; the symbol of the tree being everywhere common. 

3. The cherubim which were placed at the entrance to the 
garden, are supposed to be winged creatures. It is probable 
that reminders of them were perpetuated in the winged figures, 
which were so common in Babylonia at an early date. We 
know that winged figures are common among rude tribes at the 
present time, and are very significant.* 

4. The altar was common at an early date, and is found 
among the primitive races of the earth. This is very signifi- 
cant. It appears that the Mound-Builders of the Ohio Valley 
had altars, and at the time of great stress, when beset by 
enemies, they placed upon those altars the most precious of 
their gifts, in the shape of carved pipes, sculptured articles, 
pearl beads, specimens of obsidian and many other articles. 
Altars were as common in Central America as they were in 
Babylonia. Human sacrifices were offered on the altars of 
Mexico, and the pyramids were often covered with processions, 
which marched to the summit with their captives. The story 
of the two brothers is found among many of the civilized 
tribes of this continent. One ot these stories has been inter- 
preted as referring to the contest between light and darkness, 
the dawn and the day; but it is universal and varied in its 
character. 

5. Another point which is important to the mythologist, 
is the one which is suggested by the storv of the two brothers 
and the division of the human family into two classes. This is 
dimly hinted at. as we have said, in the Greek story in refer- 
ence to the war of the Titans. We find this story prevalent 
among all the Indo-Europeans — whether in Asia, Africa or 
Europe. There is a suggestion of the same contest in the 
American mythology, for here the story is told of a contest 
between the two brothers; one of which slew the other, and 
left his bones scattered along the banks of the rivers and in 
the streams, which can be seen at the present time. The same 
story seems to be repeated in the contest between the two 
divinities of the Aztecs — Quetzalcoatl, the Fair God, and Tescat- 
lipoca, the god of War and of Death. The same story of the 
contest is repeated by the tribes of the far West, but it is con- 
nected with the story of the Flood. 

6. The most remarkable fact is that the tree and the cross 
have always been associated together, the one merging into the 



•Prof. Haupt thinks that tha cherubim should be considered as beinfs with serpent torB»$ 
which tvpified the lightning, and cormpondx to th>* erect serpent (Uraei) found in the decorsi- 
tion of hoth Babylonian and Kgyptian temple<« Tha cherubim represented the winds, and ss 
the wind fertilizes tha female llowerA of the palm tree, by bringing to them the pollen of the 
male, it was eatural that the Assyrian cherubs should be frequently represented As engmged in 
the fnictificaiion of palm flowers. (See Proceedings of Soc. Bib. Arch. pag« eds, Nov. 1899.) 



THE TREE OF LIFE AMONG ALL NATIONS. J 

Other, so that it is difficult at times to separate them; but they 
have always been perpetuated by mythology and preserved in 
the sacred rites, so that if we were to make one symbol more 
prominent than another, it would be this. The same signifi- 
cance has been given to it (rom the beginning, and it is still the 
most important object in the symbolism of the world. This is 
the point which we are to bring out at this time. We main- 
tain that the study of symbolism proves that the narrative 
correctly describes things and events which occurred at a very 
early time. 

I. The Tree of Life was used as a symbol at a very early 
period, and was perpetuated by the religious customs of the 
different nations throughout rU generations. This was cer- 
tainly the case among the Babylonians. We do not need to 
dwell upon this point, for every one knows that the symbol of 
the tree is to be found upon the walls of the temple of Baby- 
Ionia, and see.Tis to have been a most suggestive object. 

This 6gure was not peculiar to Babylonia, for. with varia- 
tions, it prevailed among the other races of the East. As 
there presented, it is the palm trt-e, but with branches spread 
on cither side and a vine running about it, connecting the 
branches. A priest stands on either side, with the pine cone 
in his hand. Mr. E. G. Tylor has given a very plausible inter- 
pretation of this. It is, that the priest was extending the cone 
lo the pine tree, and so fertilizing it and making it an emblem 
of life. It may be said here that similar figures are common 
throughout the East to this day, and they are all significant of 
life 

There was a change in the symbol among some of the 
tribes and races, for a standing stone was used as a substitute 
lor the tree. When a stone took the place of the tree as a sym- 
bol, we cannot tell, but it seems to have been very early, for 
we find in the Book of Genesis a story that remmds us of 
this fact. The Patriarch Jacob went out from his fathei's home 
after he had received his blessing, having depriveit his brother 
of the birth-right. He lay down lo sleep in a lonely place, 
taking the stone for his pillow. During the night, or early in 
(he morning, at i awn, while surrounded by the mountiins, he 
had, what might be called a " waking dream," in which he saw a 
ladder or stairway leading up to the summit of the mountains, 
and a vision of God on the summit; angels were ascending and 
descending on the stairway. When he awoke, he took a stone, 
which had been used as a pillow and set it up as a pillar, which 
should become a shrine and an emblem of God's presence. It 
was lo serve the same purpose as the Tree of Life did to Adam, 
and became afterward the sanctuary where God w;ts supposed 
to dwell. It is very significant that the standing stones are 
very common throughout the Holy Land, and they are monu- 
ments which survived throughout all antiquity. The recent 
explorations at Gezer, the ancient Gath, has brought to light a 



« THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

number of these standing stones. In fact, a circle of standing 
stones has been discovered which resembles those found in 
North Africa. Scandinavia and elsewhere. They may have 
been set up by the Phcenicians, the Hittites. or by some un- 
known people, but they mark the place of an ancient open air 
temple, as the place of worship.* There were many such circles 
in Great Britain. The best examples of these are found at 
Stonehenge and at Avebury. At Avebury there are two circles 
confined within a larger circle — a ditch and a stone wall outside 
these. At Stonehenge there were several circles, with one 
formed by a series of triliths; inside this, a series of circles of 
■mall stones; inside this, a horseshoe circle; inside this, a flat 
stone, called the altar slone. There is an earth circle and a 
ditch outside these, also an avenue of standing stones, one 
leading to the northeast, and a standing stone called the 
*' Friar's Heel " inside the avenue. The supposition is that the 
sun shone upon the stone during the summer solstice and 
threw its shadow upon 
the a4tar, as if the divin- 
ity accepted the offerings 
made upon the altar. 

That these were sym- 
bols, is shown from the 
fact that there were dif- 
ferent kinds of stone 
used, some of which 
were brought from a 
great distance, showing 
there was a sacredness 
^^^^^ jj^^pj^^^ Whether 

the standing stone represents the Tree of Life or not. it had at 
least a mission in connection with the sun worship which pre- 
vailed in this region, and became a symbol of the power of the 
sun which threw its shadow into the temple. 

VVe may say of this temple, that it was connected with sun 
worship and was significant of the various powers of nature, 
celestial and terrestial; many astronomical principles being em- 
bodied in it. Sacred colors were embodied in the stones. The 
entire arrangement of the temple was very significant, but the 
most important symbol of all. was the stone which cast its 
shadow into the horseshoe. The throwing of the light of the 
sun into the place of worship was significant, for it was sup- 
posed to impart life, as well as to accept sacrifice. The same 
thought was conveyed by the symbols which were common 
throughout the East, especially in India and Egypt. 

Forbes Leslie, in his " Karly Races of Scotland," points out 
that in the Dcccan certain monolithic temples are still used for 




abycinlf^^ 



r 



THE TREE OF LIFE AMONG ALL NATIONS. 



wtl 
lio 



worship, in which the relative position agrees with those in 
Slonehenge; and Meadows Taylor maintains that rocks with 
'Circles around them are used as places of sacrifice by shep- 
Vherds, the stones being about fourteen feet above the surface. 
^hc ring of Brogar seems to have been originally composed of 
sixty stones. It is surrounded by a trench, with a diameter of 
360 feet. 

The shape of the horseshoe has bten regarded as a peculiar 
symbol of life. It is suggestive of the reproductive power; 
exactly as the single standmg stone is. Some have supposed 
that Ihe symbol of the co^mogonic egg surrounded by the ser- 
pent was embodied in this sacred temple, and that the features 
of ihe Hindoo worship had been transmitted to this region. 

The conventional symbol which represents the life and the 
reproductive powers, is made up of a pillar inside of an oval. 
In India this is ihe ■' Lingam in Yoni," In Egypt, however, the 
Nik- key is formed by an upright and crossbar, the ring or 
circle and the s'aff being united. The Nile key was some- 
times humanized, furnished with arms, and finally with legs, 
and became human. The sphinx is rarely associated with the 
sacred tree, or column, but wild goats and deer and other ani- 
mals are. Still there is a parallelism between the tree pillar, 
with its heraldic supporters, and the column supported by 
lions. The allar was coupled with the Asherah, but the tree be- 
;ame perverted to base purposes, and the Asherah became the 
■mbol of lust. 

The obelisk was a symbol of the sun, equivalent to the 
laft which was to receive the light of the sun. It served the 
iame purpose in Egypt, that the stanoing stone did else- 
'here. It is really a symbol of life, ralher than of death. 

We have seen that the pillar at the Lions Gate at Myccn:e 
was a symbol of life, as well as of royalty, as it had the same 
form as that seen over the palaces. The I'hcenicians also had 
a sacred pillar between heraldically opposed animals. It is to 
be noted further that trees ahd pillars, guarded by heraldic ani- 
mals, are as widely distributed as are the architectural columns; 
yet they have a symbolical or religious mission, rather than 
architectural. The animals which are associated with the col- 
umns, generally placed at the summit, are to be regarded both 
as symbols and as ornaments. They are arranged in pairs on 
either side of the capitals, just as the lions are upon either side 
of the columns. This bi-lateral. or quadrilateral arrangement 
of the animals on either side of the column was almost uni- 
versal. Wc find it in the English unicorn, and the Russian 
coat of arms, in which eagles take the place of the lions. They 
are used as symbols of royalty in both cases. In Babylonia 
ihe lions guard the doorways and gateways, but are placed on 
■either side, with a passageway between them. Whereas in 
Persia and Greece they are placed over the doorways and have 
lothing between them but the column. In this respect, the 





t THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

lion served the same office in Babylonia that the «phiDx doei 

in Egypt. They are made to guard the entrances to palaces, 

pyramids and temples, but in Persia and Greece they are placed 

Id front of tombs. It is to be supposed that the pillar and the 

tree, as well as the human image, were designed as a symbol 

of life and di- 
vinity. The 
symbol of the 
lion and sphini: 
were used as 
symbols of 
royalty. The 
most ancient 
sanctuaries of 
Greece were in 
cavps, but the 
pillar which 
supported the 
door became 
the symbol of 
divinity. The 
Pelasgic priesti 

abode among the oaks of Dodona, so that the cult of trees 

and pillars began in the cave and in the grove at a very early 

date and ran parallel courses. 

The tree in the Garden of Eden was the symbol of Divine 

presence, and so was the stone column and the obelisk. It is 

a remarkable fact 

that there is an 

obelisk and an 

altar and a circle 

closely associated 

togelherupon the 

su mmi t of the 

rock in Ihtwiider- 

ness near Mount 

Horand just 

above the old cily 

of Petra. This 

has been de- 

sciibed by Prof 

Robertson, and is' 

symbol, In Egypt there were two pillars or obelisks— often- 
times associated together — also before the temple of Solomon. 
They were given different names which were supposed to be 
significant. Whether the obelisk was a symbol of life, and 
was a substitute for the Tree of Life, is a question. 

The pillar is found upon the tombs of Persia, guarded upon 
either side by a lion. It resembles the pillar and lions over the 




^M THE TREE OF LIFE AMONG ALL NATIONS. 9 

gateway at Mycense, but generally tapers from the bottom to 
the top, rather than from top to bottom, and has the capital 
and base. Being placed over the tomb, it seems lo have served 
the same purpose as the tree, which was a symbol of life, rather 
than of death. This symbol has survived until quite modern 
times, but has become a symbol of authority rather than of 
life, for the English coat of arms has a column or tree, with a 
uotcorn on one side and a lion on the other; the Russian coat 
of arms has the eagle upon eilher side and the column in the 
center; the coat of arms in Sumatra has the shield in the 
ter, the serpent uponeithcrside, and the tiger below the serpent 

This story of the tree was probably borrowed from th« 
Hebrews, but was adapted to the new surroundings in Norse' 
land, but it retained the same significance. There is no men' 
tion of the churning of the sea, nor using the mountains as a 
fire-drill; the serpent is not used as a rope, nor is the effect to 
produce either fire or water, or the heavenly drink, the divine 
soma. These belong to the Greek and Hindoo mythology, but 
the ash tree is the Tree of Life. 

A common story amrng the Teutons relating to the earth, 
was that the giant was sleeping, his glove was by hia side. 
The God Thor found refuge in the glove or mitten, and ihought 
it was a great cave. He heard the giant snoring, the sound 
alarmed him, but he sallied out, finally found the giant, and 
struck him with his hammer three times, and at last awoke 
him. His eyes opened, and he saw it was the sleeping earth 
he had struck and the blows had caused three great valleys in 
the earth. The sky was like ihe skull of a giant. It was sup- 
ported by four dwarfs, who stood on either corner. 

The circle was also a symbol in Scandinavia. The tree 
shot up its branches toward the sky. Around Ihe tree, mid- 
way between the branches and the root was a serpent, which 
formed a circle, with its tail in its mouth. This represents the 
sea which surrounds the land. Outside the serpent was a 
raage of mountains which formed the border of the horizon. 
There were three roots lo the tree, Now, this Tree of Life 
was the cosmic symbol for the Scandinavians. It was evi- 
dently borrowed from the Hindoos, but modified. 

The symbols of the circle are scattered all over the globe, 
and are always very similar. At Stonehenge, it consisled of 
the double circle of standing stones, which symbolized the 
earth with its horizon, exactly as the double circle did 
around Igdrasil, the Tree of Life. There were double circles 
formed by standing stones at Gczer in Palestine; various local- 
itici uf North Africa; in India, and in South America. 

In South America they served as sun dials. In Great 
Britain thej' served as temples to the sun. In North Africa, 
as places of sacrifice. It is very singular that these cosmic 
nbo's should be so wide-spread, and should be so similar in 

^character, and especiallyin their significance. The idea that 




'J 



«o THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

life was perpetuated by the union of the male and female, was, 
of course, a common one and was universal, but that it should 
be connected so closely with religion and embodied in the 
temples and places of sacrifict is to us astonishing. 

II. The Tree of Life is very common in America, and in 
many respects resembles the one described in the Scriptures. 

This is illustrated, not only by the so-called rude archi- 
tectural works, such as earth and stone circles, platforms and 
sun dials, but by various relics which have been discovered 
here and there, in .. ^ i 

America as well as 
India. These rcl 
have been studied by I 
those who have a pen- 
chant in that way, and 
compared with the sym- 
bols which are preva- 
lent in China, India and 
elsewhere. It certainly 
seems at times that the 
phallic symbols were 
thoroughly distributed 
on this continent, and 
that they had the same 
significance as in India. 
Be this as it may, we are 
confident that the suas- 
<ika,'or hooked cross, 
was a wide-spread sym- 
bol on this continent, 
and had much the same 
significance as in the 
•Old World. It may 
have represented Ihe 
whirling sky. and in this 
manner symbolized the 
life of the universe. 
The humanized tree is. , 
however, the most re- I 
remarkable and sug- 
gestive, for it reminds mumani/.kd thee. 
us of the Tree of Life 

■s represented by the Babylonians. In one tablet, the 
arms arc represented as branches, the hands as twigs, the legs 
are turned up beside the tree, and resemble the arms. The 
hair resembles the foliage, and the eyes the fruit in the tree. 
This tablet was found in a mound in Cincinnati. The 
cosmic symbol is also very wide-spread. In this symbol the 
suastika serves an important mission. Mrs. Nuttall has writ- 
ten concerning this. It embraces the coamogonical traditions. 




r 



THE TREE OE LIFE AMONG ALL NATIONS. 



liturgies, and incantations; all of which seem to be connected 
with the constellations of the North. 

It would seem as if there must have been secret societies, 
-or orders, through which these symbols were transmitted, and 
the ritual of which was a means of conveying religious thought 
which served the same purpose as the Eleusinian mysteries. 

The Tree <.f Life was very common in America. It was 
found among the Osages supporting four upper worlds, with 
the constellations and stars above it, the sun and moon and the 
Pleiades, ft was prominent among the Ojibwas, and appeared 
■ n the four different lodges of the Medcwiwin Society. It was 
also prevalent among the Navajos, and was promimnt in their 
sand paintings. Here, it was surmounted by the humanized rain- 
bow, and had the form of the suaslika with gods and goddesses 
upon the arms. 

The Popol Vuh contains a number of creation myths. 
This is the Bible of the Quich s- According to this, there 
was at the beginnihg nothing visible but water and the 
feathered serpent, but tl.ere also existed those who "'gave life." 
They said."Earlh," and there was earth, and plants grew upon it. 
Animals followed the plants; but there were several creations 
for man. The first man wzs shaped, but he did not look up. The 
givers of life said, "Speak our names," but all the men could 
do was to cluck and croak. The givers of life destroyed these, 
and made men out of clay. These men wei e weak and watery, 
and they destroyed them. Next, there were men made out of 
wood, and women made out of the pith of trees. These crea- 
tures married and had children, but they were manikins — 
wooden creatures. They were destroyed. A few developed 
into apes. Next came a period occupied by supernatural crea- 
tures, who were like the Titans. They upset the hills and 
accomplished great feats. Last of all, men were made out of 
corn. These survived and became the progenitors of the 
tribes. In Peru there was a period of savagery. The savages 
sprung from all manner of natural objects; chiefly from birds 
and animals. Magic and totemism prevailed. The people sur- 
vived their totemic ancestors, but they permitted themselves 
to be eaten by their totems. 

The Aztecs had a series of four creations, or four destruc- 
tions. Fiist, the water age, ending in a deluge; second, an 
earth age, ending in an earthquake; third, a wind age, ending 
in a hurricane, and fourth, the present agf, which will end 
with an age of fire. These four ages are represented by the 
Calendar Stone. In the center we see the face of the sun, 
with protruding tongue, which was the emblem of life. Around 
this we see the four symbols, A tower, tottering to its fall, 
overthrown by the earthquake and the wind. The deluge is 
represented in the picture form. The Aztecs reached a high 
stage of civilization. How they came by this story of the 
deluge is a mystery. 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

The sacred books of the Mayas contain codices, which are 
made up of pictographs and hieroglyphics. They have been 
studied by various scholars, — Mr. Forslemann, Mr. Seler and 
others in Germany, and by Prof. Cyrui Thomas, Dr. D. G. 
Brinton, Mr. Goodman, and Mr. Bowditch in this country. Dr. 
Brinton has explained ihe "Tableau des Bacabs" found in 
the Cortesian Codex, as follows : 

■' The design is surrounded by the ligns of the twenty da; 
beyond which the field (not shown in the cut) is apportionei 
to the four cardinal points and the deities and time cycles con' 
nected with them. The earth is not repfcsented. but is 
regularly recognized in conventionalized form as the Great Tree 
of Life. Across it is the celestial vase, and above it the cloud 
masses. On the right sits Cuculcan, the master of life, and on 
the left, Xmucane. the great mother; the divine pair called in 
the Popol Vuh, ' the Creator." ' the Former,' ' Grandfather,' and 
'Grandmother' of the gods, who give life, who give reproduc- 
tion. 

'■ Xmucane has before her the symbol of union, and another 
symbol containing the life sign- the product of union, and 
these are surmounted by the head of a fish, signifying the 
fructifying and motherly waters. 

Dr- Brinton says. '■ Ihe scene of the creation of man, the 
terrestial paradise, was known as Ifuma htl, and the name of 
the first man was Anum, to "stand erect" It was a common 
conception among the Mayas and among the Aztecs, that the 
first man was created before the Flood, but that there were 
four periods or epochs of the universe, at the close of 
which there was a general destruction of both gods and 
men. The tree preceded the Flood and 'a>as the emblem of the 
Dhdnily. 

They had also a sacred year consisting of 260 days, and a 
secular year consisting of 360 days, with five inter-calary days. 
Their years were divided into twenty months, thirteen days in 
a month; also into eighteen months of twenty days each, 
There were charts which represenled these lime divisions. 
One of these had the shape of the Maltese cross, The tree 
was in each arm of the cross, and a human form clmging to the 
tree on either side, while a bird surmounted it. A border con- 
tained dots which represented the days. The tree rested on 
or grew out of certain symbols, t-ach of which had a meaning. 
There were loops between the arms of the cross, with dots re- 
presenting the 1 3 days in the week. The bird at the top, and the 
symbols at the bot'om. as well as the two human figures repre- 
sented the dualiatic nature of their religion. (See cut- ) 

The following is Dr. Brinton's opinion: "Thespiiitof this 
religion was dualistic. The gods of life and light, of the sun 
and day, of the fertilizing showers and cultivated fields, being 
placed in contrast to those of misfortune and pain, of fai ' ' 



ninik-B 



THE TREE OF LIFE AMONG ALL NATIONS. 



'3 



and pestilence, of blight and night, darkness and death. Back 
of them all, the source of them all, was the Humab Ka, " the 
One Divine"; but of him no statue and no picture was made, 
(or he was incorporeal and invisible. 

"The growth of the plant and the pcsls that beset it and 
hinder the growth are dualistic. We see Itzamna, one of 
the chief Maya deities, planting 'he maize; we see also a bird 
picking up the planted seed before it is planted. In tht next 
figure, we see a small fox picking it, after it has sprouted. In 
the division below, we see quadrupeds, birds and worms 
attacking it. This dualism is illustrated by the cut. In it we see 
the Tree of Life beset by birds, animals and men, and attacked 




THE FOUR-FOLD TREB. 



by lightning, but it continues to bloom through the 260 days 
of the sacred year, 

" Itzamna was the chief of the bcneficient gods. He was 
the personification of the east, the rising sun. His name 
means ' the dew of morning.' He was the spirit of the early 
mists and showers. He came in his magic skiff from the east, 
across the waters, and presided over that quarter of the world. 
He received the name, "the Serpent of the East.' His name 
was synonymous with both life and knowledge. He was said to 
have been the creator of men, animals and plants, and was the 
culture hero and law-giver of the Mayas. He was the first 
priest of their religion. He invented writing and books. 

"Cuculcan was regarded by the Mayas as a hero, a god, a 
deity of culture and kindliness. He was the founder of the 



M THE iUURlCAX AXTIQUARIiUf. 

great dtief ; vas active is ffamuif lavs, and introdaccd the 
caicsdax. H^ was idcstified with the west. He was said to 
have come frosn tbe wcsl« and to return thither. He is de- 
scribed as clothed io a loog robe, wearing sandals, and as kav- 
iagabeard. He was the feathered or winged serpent, bat was 
paintrd in the likeness of a man ^nd snake: the snake with 
itsi$k€n^ which moved in the waters. He was identified with 
the 'cloud tcrpeni.* Itzamna was connected with the rising 
stm* and Cuculcan with the setting sun. But the meridian sun 
was distinguished from both of tbem. A consort was assigned 
to Itzamna, who was named the rainbow, the spider web, which 
catches the 'dew of the morning/ Her children were the 
' Bacabs, of giants/ four mighty brethren, who were the gods 
of the four cardinal points and of the four winds and rains^ 
and the harvest and food supply, and the thunder and lightning. 
Cuculcan was connected with the seventh day. To each Bacab 
was assigned a particular color and day in the calendar. 

"The Mayan hieroglyphics represent the conflict between 
the two classes of deities, those who make for good, and those 
who make for evil, in the life of man. The gods of life and 
growth, plant the tree, death breaks it in twain. The god of 
death appears as the inevitable foil of the god of heaven and 
life. Where the god of li^ht holds the string, the god of 
death tears it asunder. Where the former offers incense, the 
latter carries the sign of fire to consume it. Where the former 
presents the form of (sign Ka/i) food, the latter lifts an empty 
vase bearing the signs of drought and death; and in whatever 
action the god of light is depicted, the god of death imitates 
it, but in such a manner that all turns to naught and empti- 
ness. Between these two classes of deities — those who make 
for good, and those who make for evil in the life of man — there 
is, in the myths and picture-writings, an eternal conflict. 

*'The good gods seem to be separated from the evil. They 
were the lord of the waters or rains, the lord of the harvest 
fields, the lord of the vase, virgin fire, patronness of infants, a 
hunting goddess, the virgin of first animals, the one who looks 
after the cooking fire, the master of dew, the master of cold, 
the god of the intoxicating mead, the god of the Cacao 
planters, called the * black companion,' the goddess of precious 
stones and jade, the god of singing, the god of poetry, the god- 
dess of painting, color designs and woven stuflFs." 

"The most striking of the representations is the green 
feathered serpent, which extends over the middle of the 
Dresden Codex. He is seen with his face emerging from the 
mouth of the great snake dragon, indicative of his own per- 
sonality." 

The symbol of a face emerging from the mouth of a dragon 
or snake is v<!ry common. It is seen on the facades of the 
temples and altarn, an well as in the codices. A god. with an 
ornamented face, represents the north star, the pole star per- 



THE TREE OF LIFE AMONG ALL NATIONS. 



'S 



sonified. This god surmounts the picture of the "Tree of 
Life," which appears in the constellation bands and has a ring of 
stars surrounding it, the constellations of the north siar, the 
bear and the serpent having been as familiar to the Mayas, as 
to the Hindoos and nations of the East. 

Hi. Brinton goes on to describe the divinities of the benefi- 
cent class: "One is the pole star, the north star, so interprcied 
because it is surrounded by tays. It is found in the constella- 
tion band, which surrounds certain pictures of the "Tree of 
Life." The figure is associated at times with all the four quar- 
ters of the world, because at night all figures are recognized by 
the position of the 
pole and its immove- 
able relation to ihe. 
other celestial 
bodies, 

"The north star is 
especially spoken of 
as the -guide of mer-' 
chants.' It is especi- 
ally prominent in the 
'. pages of the 
codices, ileisscalcdi 
on the Tree o( Life, 
le Codex Troa- 
which isgrowing 
from the vase of the 
He is known 
by the seated figure, 
the Popol 
Vuh, the sacred book 
of the Quiches, the 
' feathered serpent." 
Gukumatz is said to, 
ae the bi-sexual prin- 

r>HE .IK KOURTHERSIMHF VATICAN CODEX "^'P^' °^ ''^^' ''^P''^- 

sented by (he male 
Xpiyacoc, and the female Xmucane. ancestor and ancestress 
of all that is," • • • 

"One of the most striking pictures in the codices is the 
Serpent Goddess, whose familiar is the rattlesnake, which she 
wears a* a headdress or girdle. In expression she is severe. 
Her lips protrude in anger, and her hands and feet sometimes 
end in claws. The sinister cross bones decorate her skirts. 
Her business is with water and the rains. She is pouring it 
from a vase, or ejecting it from her mouth, or water is flowing 
from her arm-pits and hands. As to the signification of the 
Serpent Goddess, there can be no question, from a study of her 
associations and appearance, but that she was the personifica- 
tion of the thunder storm. The vase which she <^mptied. ii the 





|^«t 


#ij 


d^ 




i6 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

descending torrent of rain. Her severe mein is the terror in- 
spired by the din of the elements. The rattle she carries are 
the thunder claps. A third goddess can clearly be distineuished. 
She holds a distinct place in the Troano and Cortesian Codices. 
Her occupations are peaceable. She is weaving on her loom, 
carrying a plate of cakes. She it the female counterpart of 
Cuculcan, and represents his companion or wife. In the 
Tableau des Bacabs, the two are represented sitting under 
the central ** Tree of Life/' sitting back to back. She was the 

eersonification of the earth, the goddess of the rainbow, whose 
ome was with him in the west, whom she soon joins. 

'* Next to Itzamna the god of life, the god of death is repre: 
sented the most frequently. Its symbols are unmistakable." 

There is a picture in the Cortesian Codex which represents 
four beneficent gods drawing their stores from cloud vases. 
Each one of these has a different headdress and a different 
face, but with the same shaped body. All of them symbolize 
the different operations of nature, but they are personifications 
which resembled the gods and goddesses of the Greeks, such 
as Minerva, the goddess of childbirth; Ceres, god of the fields; 
Artemis or Diana, goddess of the hunt, and Dionysus, god of 
wine. These gods and goddesses have separate names, and 
were represented by different colors, and a certain year and 
day in the calendar, is assigned to them. The red "bacab" 
was to the east; the white, to the north; the black, to the west; 
the yellow, to the south. 

In the codices the celestial bodies, the revolutions of the 
suR and planets are represented just as in the Zodiacs of the 
Old World, by uncouth animals and by human images. Torches 
are in the hands of figures; one downward, and one upward, 
which indicate the setting of constellations. The god of 
time brings in the dead year. It is a part of the ceremonies. 
A wolf-headed figure represents time. The god arrives in 
a vase of the heavenly waters. In his left hand he holds the 
rattle; in his right, the magic wand, or magic staff, and the 
medicine bag. Arond his waist, is a broad carrying band, in 
the loop of which is the dying year, Kau. 

In another figure, the celebrant is holding a beheaded fowl 
in his right hand, while his left strews grain; before him is a 
haunch of venison and a turkey; above the latter, is the moon 
symbol and the number 15. To the left of these stands the 
statue of Mani, the grandfather; a tree folded in a robe and 
surmounted by the three branches. In front are seen the ser- 
pent's head, the sign of time; below this are foot prints, to in- 
dicate that time has gone; and beneath the form of the god, is 
the sign pax, with the meaning, "it is ended." 

The lesson we learn from these facts, is that the !«ame 
principles which were embodied in the two trees have been 
apprehended by all tribes and nations, and have been eaibodied 
in the religious symbols of nearly every land. 



I 



ROMAN DISCOVERIKS IN GREAT BRITAm 

SY J038.PH OFFOBD, LOJTDON, ENGLAND. 



DuriDg 19OI and 1902 but few antiquarian discoveries re- 
lating to the Roman occupation of Britain were announced, 
though excavations at Silchester and a few other sites were 
earned on, and a large sculptured relief of a cavalry soldier, 
without any inscription, wab accidently found near Falkirk in 
Scoliand. 

To make up for the meagre hirvest in the last two years. 
1903 has proved almost a record in the value and amount of 
the archxological treasures of Roman times that have come to 
light. 

Owing to engineering works connected with a new bridge 
at Newcastle-upon-Tyne large excavations have been made in 
the river, and th^se early resulted in the finding of two altars, 
whose inscriptions tell us they were erected in the time of the 
Emperor Hadrian, and that they are dedicated to Neptune ai>d 
Occanus; so probably the object for which they were provided 
was in grateful remembrance of a successfully accomplished 
voyage across the North Sea to Pons /Elii, or Newcastle. 

Further light upon the matter may now be considered to be 
afforded by a most valuable and well-preserved Latin niemorial 
inscription recently recovered from the same site. Although 
rescued from the bed of the Tyne the stone is a wall tablet of 
sanilstone, 35 inche-* long, and nearly 19 inches wide, and 2 
inches thick. It is so well preserved that the tool marks of the 
workmen are slitl visible, and the letters are perfectly distinct. 
A translation of the inscription was last August given at a 
ine--ting ot the Newcastle Society of Antiquarie* by Mr. R. O, 
Heslop, ai.d remarks concerning it were added by Mr. F. J. 
Haverfield, one of the highest authorities upon Latin Epi- 
graphy in Great Britain. The version of the text approved at 
the meeting was as follows: 

■'To the E nperor, Antoninus Aui^ustus Pius, Pater Patriie: 
This work is done by; a vexillatiai of the second legion siyled 
the August: and of the sixth legion, the Victorius: and of the 
twentieth legion, the Valeria Victrix, with two contribute from 
German! {or probably better, ' from the two Germanics'), under 
Julius Verus Augustan Legato and Propraetor." 

As to the date, Antoninus Pius was emperor from 138 to 
165 A. D., so as far as his reign is concerned, we have a margin 
of more than a quarter of a century. The Imperial Legato 
Julius Verus was not otherwise known, or does not exist in 
selecting the correct lime of the writing of the text. We know, 
however, that detachments of the very three legions here 
enuiDerated built, or superintended the building of, the 




i8 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Antoninus Roman wall. It was divided into eleven sections^ 
four being erected by the second, four by the sixth, and three 
by the twentieth legion. Jhe Propraet9r, however, who is 
known to have been fii chargfe of their work oh tht ifal/um was 
Quintus LoUius Ur^icus, and he was engaged upon it in A. D. 
139 and 140. 

Bearing in mind that the two altars dedicated to 'marine 
divinities may have been erected at the same time as this in- 
scriptiun, and that th^ text itself alludes to troops coining 
from Germany, we may suggest that the meniorial was eiected 
in the first year of Antoninus Pius, A. D. 138, when the vixil- 
lation of these legions had, perhaps, but recently crossed the 
North Sea and had not yet proceeded to labor on the wall. 
The legions in Britain we know were largely recruited in Ger- 
many, as were their auxiliary troops in Spain, Gaul and Fland- 
ers, and so it may be that these drafts or vexillatias arrived 
and weie engaged at Newcastle in some work, whilst the maia 
bodies were up north; therefore it may be of any date in 
Antoninus Pius' reign. 

Theie is one inscription found in, or near, the Antoninus 
Wall, which connects together two of these legions; but there 
is also another, now in Paris, which docs so in a very singular 
manner. This s( cond text is preserved upon a bronze disk, and 
has ihe advantage of being an inscription with illustrations. 
At the top of the circular engraving is an eagle grasping a 
thunderbolt, the accredited symbol of Roman military power; 
on each side of it are two ensigns, guidons, such as so fre- 
quently appear on Roman legionary coins. These aie in the 
form of a cross, with some ornament like a boss at the summit 
of the staff, or just above the cross bar, which bears a banner, 
or a coronet. Beneath the signa, or ensigns, are two files of 
soldiers, and the legions they represent are revealed to us by 
a minute text plactd above /each: as the Legio XX. Valeria 
Victrix, and Legio Secunda Augusta. That, should these letters 
become a little defaced, there should be no possible error, the 
crests, or heraldic, symbols, of the legions are also appended; 
a goat for the II. Augusta, and a wild boar for the XX. Valeria 
Victrix. These legionary crests are well known from coins and 
sculptured monuments as being those of these legions. 

The remaining illustrations on the disk, or boss, consists of 
a number of wild animals. The monument, therefore, is un- 
doubtedly a prize for, or memorial of, some game, or military 
tournament in which these two legions took part. That, 
though now preserved in France, it probably originally came 
from Britain, or is a record of an event which took place upon 
the soil of Britain, is certain, because the legions remained 
and were connected together in that country until the Roman 
forces left it. Their long stay, however, necessarily renders it 
diflficult to assign a date to to the relic, but fortunately an 
appioximate period can be suggested, because it bears a per- 



19 

son's Dam e^ — AurcHus Servianus — and the soldiers are armed 
with oval shields. 

The title "Aurelius" for a soldier or officer, naturally sug- 
gest* a date subsequent to the second century, when owing to 
its having been an imperial name, it became fashionable. 
Again, up to the end of the third century, although cavalry 
used a round shield in Roman armies, the infantry were ariiied 
with the well-known square shield, called scutum. These war- 
riiirs on the disk are foot-soldiers, and so it is improbable that 
they were drawn before the fourth century. Before leaving 
this part of the subject it may be mentioned that at a recent 
sale of antiquities in England, a French collector purchased 
what is certainly the upper part of one of these guidons of the 
Roman army. As a centre ornament it has a medallion of 
Nero, and so was probably lost by the Romans in the war with 
Boadiceia in A. D. 63. 

The second most interesting series of Roman remains 
recently recovered in Great Britain have been unearthed at 
Brough, near Hope and Bradwell in Derbyshire. Here, the 
County Archsoiogical Society are laying bare the remains of 
a Roman military station and its accompanying town. The 
explorahons have proved the fort to be very extensive. I'hc 
walls are of worked stone, and vary from five to eight feet in 
thickness, and are pierced at each corner by four gates. The 
circular walls of a huge tower have been discovered, probably 
a watch tower; at the base of it was a port room with lime- 
stone floor and lime ashes. In the centre of the edifice there 
are remains of walls of a large building, evidently the pre- 
torium or judgment hall. A bath has been found, the descent 
into which is by a beautiful flight of steps, and remains of an 
inscription tell us that the bath was dedicated to an emperor. 
Near it a second century coin was found. The partially exca- 
vated pretorium is evidently larger than these buildings usu- 
ally were in Britain, considering the size of the fortification of 
which it was the centre, but its full extent is not yet ascertained. 
It will, however, take several years to completely explore the 
site. 

Strange to say, since the Newcastle inscription was discov- 
ered another text has been found ai Hope, and it relates to the 
very Julius Vcrus of the Tyne text. The inscription has not 
yet been fully published, and until its finder, Mr. J. Garstang. 
gives his version of its contents, comment upon it is improper; 
but we have been informed that it was erected under Antoninus 
Pius by a Prefect of the I. Aquitanian cohort under Julius 
Verus, Governor of Britain, The cohort had, however, been 
found recorded upon an inscription at Bakewell. 

Another Roman city from which a valuable inscription has 
been recovered this year is Venta Silurum, in Monmouthshire, 
about five miles from Chepstow, and eleven east of Newport. 
The name of the village pratically above the old Romano- 



a 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

British one is now Caerment. Its title shows that it was con- 
nected with the tribe of the Situres, who are mentioned by 
Tacitus, and were supposed to be in South Wales. They may 
also have inhabited the Scilly Isles, which were termed the 
Silurea. Venta Siluruoi is not alluded to by classic historians, but 
the sort of Gazctcer of the Roman Empire known as "Antonine 
Itinay." and the geographical work, whose author's name is un- 
known, which goes by the name of the " Ravenna Geography," 
both mention it. 

The newly found inscription informs us it was the adminis- 
tralive centre in Roman times for the organization of the tribe 
of the Silures. The text, which unfortunately is far from com- 
plete, leads as follows: 

". . , , LEG(ato} LEG(ionies) II. AUG(ustac) PRO- 
CONSVL(i) PROVINC(iae) NARBONENSIS LEG(ato) 
AVGVST PR PR PROVING (iae) LVGDVNENSIS EX 
DECRETO ORDINIS RESPVPLICA CIVIT(atis) SIL- 
VRVM." 

Although the names of the person in whose honor this in- 
scription was given is absent, it may perhaps be obtained by 
careful search among all persons known to have held office in 
the Gallic Roman province of Lyons, who also are stated to 
have served in the II. Augustan Legion. 

The excavations at Caerment are proving most fruitful. 
The walls and gates of the city have been traced, and much of 
its internal arrangement is becoming clear. It apparently was 
subdivided into twenty in&ulfe. The Roman road ran from 
cast to west, right through the centre. The majority of the 
buildings yei unexcavated are private ones. The arrangement of 
some of these Is quite novel, ao far as we at present know of 
the architectural features of Romano-British houses, for they 
have the rooms arranged on four sides around a rectangular 
courtyaid. The walls are not of brick, but limestone blocks, 
and portions of the colored plaster with which their interior 
faces were covered is still preserved. Several mosaic pave- 
ments also havi_' already been uncovered. Pottery and bronzes 
and some iron objects have been found in great numbers, also 
a rudely-carved head in sandstone. The latest explorations 
have disinterred a residence with a subterranean chamber, and 
the workers are proceeding to trace the lines of the streets, 
aided by some of the drains and culverts still in existence. 

In 1S98 and 1899 excavations were also carried out at the 
Roman fortress of Bremettenacum, near Ribchester in the 
valley of the Ribble, but no legible inscription has been found. 
It was one of what might be termed the supporting fortified 
stations for the great wall of Hadrian, and formed an import- 
ant item in the frontier defence of Britain against the uncon- 
quered northern natives, until the legion having advanced into 
Scotland, the second wall from the Forth to the Clyde marked -y 
the limit of Roman sway. 



e maricea -y ■ 

M 



■ rOmAn discoveries in great BRITAIN. 21 

ft Mt. Garstaag, in a report of the result of the excavations, 
•ays: 

Bremettcnacum wasanalagousin place and constructive details wilh 
other forli of the lame system and period. It was to be distinguifhed 
primarily Irom tbe camps of a moving army, the disposition of whicb is 
•eii known from literary sources, just as tbe name casitUum was diSerent 
from the word castra. Latm historians were careful of this distinction, 
and it behooves English arcbseologists 10 be on their guard. The Roman 
fort ura* hardly treated oi in contemporai-y literature, out its character and 
military organization are now clearly dediied to us by the results of archce- 
oloRical research. This fort was tu be dislingulsed. secondarily with the 
class of which It was an example, from the later type of Roman fortress, 
familiar from ruins on the southeasltrn coast line of Britain; built in the 
fourlti century to oppose the dangers threatening the Saxon shore. These 
later strongholds had external buttresses and turrets, were generally larger 
and Hiih higher walls, and exhibited the prototypes of some of the mediaeval 
details of fortificaiion. 

But. the class of fortress 10 which Ribchester belonged was Entirely of 
■be earlier character: severe rectangular shapes, with internal buttresses, 
and mural lowers; magnificent double arched gates; a stout wall, not very 
high, with parapet and guard chambers upon its length. In large examples 
of this class, of which Ribchester iBiemetienacum) was one: the interior 
was filled with stone-built barrack-rooms and stables, arranged regularly 
in rows and streets. In the centre was the large praeiorium, the head- 
quarters for the commander of the division constituting the garrison. On 
one side was commonly a large slorehouEe and granary, and at Ribchester 
ihcre seems to have been, quite exceptionally, a large temple within the 
walls. 

The excavatiotis at Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) arc still 
proceeding, but nothing of any importance has been found. 
Two more seasons will exhaust the area of the town and it is 
to be hoped produce some relics of hi>torical or artistic value. 

With regard to the Roman soldiers in Britain frequently 
being of German origin, it is not only that the inscriptions stale 
the various corps were recruited there, and give them the names 
of tribes or peoples inhabiting Germany; but texts relating to 
special individuals often state that ihey were of German ex- 
traction. For instance, in the TuUie Horse Museum at Carlisle, 
in Cumberland, these two texts are to be found. The first is 
upon an altar: 

"To Maponus and the Deity of the Emperor. Durio and 
Ramio. and Trupo, and Lurio, Germans, pay their vows." 

The second is merely on a stone slab: 

"To the comrades of the god Hercules, for the welfare of 
his fellow soldiers who are not Roman citizens, on account of 
their bravery bv P. Sextantius; born at the Civitas Traianensis," 
That is at "Colonia Ulpia Traiana," now Xanten, near Cologne 
on the Rhine. 

A singular link with Germany has reccnlly been noticed in 
connection with a third inscription in the same museum, it reads; 

" Deo Mogonti Vitire s(olvit) l(ibeus) m(erilo)." 

The catalogue describing this relic suggests: " Mogon was 
robably a local deity; here identified with Vitus, or Vetus, a 




22 . . THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

god met with in other Britanus- Latin inscriptions." Mogon» 
however, is also given in other Latin epigraphic texts in 
Britain, for one at Plunnpton reads: "Deo Mog(on)ti"; and 
another at Risingham : *' Deo Mogcnti Cadenorum et numini 
domini nostri August!/* &c. 

There is reason, however, to think he is not a British local 
god at all, but a Germanic deity from the Rhine province of 
Mogontiacum (Mayence) namely '* the house of Mogontius"; 
Mogontius being a name derived from Mogons, as Jovius is 
from Jovis. The reason for suggesting that Mogon is a German 
deity name, is the following text, preserved in the museum at 
Metz, of a goddess of the same name, namely, of Mayence: 
*• Deai Mogontiae, Julius Paternus tabellarius ex veto." 

It must riot be supposed that only German levies, or that in 
the majority of cases, (jermans were employed by the Romans 
as soldiers in England; as for instance, no less than thirteen 
different Spanish corps are already known from inscriptions. 
From texts found on the line of the Roman wall a'lone, the 
following ICuropean peoples are represented, as the names of 
the cohorts will indicate: I. Batavorum, I. and II. Tungrorum, 
I. Dacorum and I. Aelia Dacorum, II. Asturum, II Delmator- 
um, H. Gallorum. II. Thracum, I. Nervana Gcrm)anorum), L 
Hispanorum. We thus have tribes from Astures to Thrace, in 
the list and on other inscri|)tions we have recruits from Asia 
and Syria. 

The intermarriage of scions of such a number of races with 
the native British women must have produced a people of very 
varied type: the different strains of which ap[ain intermarry- 
ing, between the departure of the Romans and the arrival of 
the Saxons, or other German tribes, must have created a race, 
at any rate in the neighborhood of the Roman garrisons, of 
singular variability. 

United States visitors to England and Scotland have little 
idea of what treasures of interest to them, if they are histori- 
cal students, or of an anti(]uarian turn of mind, are hidden 
awav in the museums of the various countv towns. All liable 
to destruction by fire and to gradual decay. It would be a 
worthy use for the wealth of some American to have casts 
made of say 500 of the most important monuments and in- 
scriptions, and deposit them in museums in the United States. 
It is true that the texts are all (or supposed to be) published 
in the British Volumes of the Latin Corpus of Inscriptions, 
and the majority of them are also edited in the volumes 6f the 
various English local Archaeological societies. But the inscrip- 
tions are often fragmentary, or, if complete, partly obliterated, 
and the completed, or emended copies and versions and trans- 
lations given subject to error and correction. By having casts 
of the actual texts themselves, the material for re-investiga- 
tion and restoration is provided, and a duplicate prepared in 
case of .loss of the original. 



r 



ROMAN DISCOVERIES IN GREAT URITAIN. 



LEGENDS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. 

BV C. STANILAND WAKE. 



The history of the Koman iavaston, and occupation of 
Britain, oi recorded by the moiiumaUs found ■wititin the island, has 
never yet been adequately written One most ardent and in- 
dustrious student has published it for Lancashire and Cheshire. 
The best scholars have modestly wailed until the number of 
inscriptions was still further augmented, but there are sufficient 
■Iready discovered to enable such a work to be completed as 
would be of the greatest historical value and of such interest 
-as to command a lar^e circle of readers. It must, of course, 
embrace every inscription found in Europe, Asia and Africa, 
mentioning Britain, and they are very many, but it would be 
an object deserving ihe united efforts of a committee of 
scholars of the British. and American Universities. Let us 

Ipe it will not be long before it is undertaken and achieved. 
Although some Indian stories furnish evidence of contact 
th the white race, yet they may be regarded, on the whole, as 
embodying the early ideas of the native race and, therefore, as 
throwing valuable light on its past They contain, however, 
practically nothing relating to its history, as this is usually 
understood, the incidents referred to biing concerned almost 
entirely with the domestic and social lite of the people, their 
character, and their beliels as to the relation of man to nature 
and other organic existences. A consideration of the stories 
under these heads, making due allowances for modern changes, 
will probably give us a true notion of the mental condition of 
the ancestors of the present native inhabitants of North 
America, poisibly several thousands of years ago This is the 
rc%l value of the stories, tor the accounts fjiven in them of the 
origin of the earth and its inhabitants, and of the Lodges and 
their ceremonial usages arc purely imaginary, although they 
probably embody legends of con.siderable antiquity, brought 
with them from a country different from that which they at 
present inhabit. These legends have, undoubtedly, affected 
deeply the native mind, as shown by the fact that the religious 
and other ceremonials of the people are largely based on them. 
unless, as may be sometimes the case, the stories have been in- 
vented to explain the ceremonies. 

The domestic and social life of the natives as described in 
these stories, would seem to have been much the same 
among all the tribes inhabiting the great plain region 
when they first came into contact with the whites. They were 
migratorv, not sedentary, and lived in tents or tepees, placed 
near the bank of a stream or a spring, and usually not far from 
3 divide, the situation being govtrned chiefly by the desire to 
i^Jthin range of the buffalo. This .animal furnished their 




24 THE All KRICAN AKTIQUAftlAM. 

chief food, although elk, deer, bear and other smaller aohnalSr 
including various birds, such as ducks and turkeys, and fish, 
with roots and berries, were also eaten. Probably the refer- 
ence to corn is an afterthought. 

Animal food was obtained by the men, who appear to have 
spent most of their time during peace in hunting, but the meat 
was cut up and cooked, usually in a vessel suspended over the 
fire, by the women, who are represented as even carrying the 
meat into the tipi from the place where it has been deposited 
the hunter. No reference is made to the cultivation of 
plants, or to the domestication of animals, except the dog and 
the horse. Of these, the former was u-ed for carrying things, 
and the latter afterwards for the same purpose, but also for war 
and the chase. The practice of cannibalism is often referred 
to. but it IS usually ascribed to dwarfs and a particular class of 
beings called ** Cannibals." 

As to clothing, both men and women are described as wear- 
ing the ordinary native garments. Reference is made to 
buck-skin dresses, and other ordinary wearing apparel. The 
tipi is often referred to. and it would seem to have been com- 
fortably furnished. The implements and utensils mentioned 
are of the ordinar\' character used by the natives until recently. 

The social relations usually depicted in the stories are 
those of the modern Plains Indians. A family, consisting of a 
man with his wife or wives and their children, lived in a tipi, 
either near other families thus situated, forming together a 
camp, or alone, as might be the case uhen a family was left 
behind in charge of the camping ground, or a man went away in 
search of game, taking his family with him. Marriage was 
fully recognired. hut it required no special ceremony. Usually 
it was brought about by intermediaries, presents being given to 
the girl's jvurents. who also were entitled to the services of the 
son in Uw. so long at least as he lived as part of their family. 
There are references to the custom which permits a man to 
claim his wife's sisters in marriage when they attain the proper 
age. The consent ot both parents appears to have been 
required, and that of the daughter asked in marriage was 
also necrssary. It was considerevi disgraceful for parents 
anil children to consort, or mother-in-law and son in-law, who 
ordinarily, indeed, were not allowed to speak with each other. 
Wives were expected to be faithful to their husbands, but 
ailultcry \va$ regarded merely as an infringement of the hus- 
band's ri){ht. that is. as a crime and not as a sin. The offence 
wa>i convlvMicvl on pavment ot a rine in horses or goods. If no 
mich pu'Nent was made by rhe guiltv person^ the husband 
woulv« ^o anvl kit! the horses, or^ take them by force. The 
woman wa* punishcvi by a sli^rhc beating, or she would have her 
ha»i vut v»r the etui ot her :*ose cut-off^ 

A> tho tnoit >ipci^t thc'.r f.re in w.^r or hunting, when not 
eo^ iv:<d in anuM, iron', t^e «or^^cn hai to attewd to household 



^ LEGENDS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. 15 

matters. If the husband brought home an animal from the 
chase, the wife, alone or assisted by her daughters, took it into 
the ttpi, cut it up, and placed it in the sun to dry. It was part 
of (he woman's task to fetch water from the spring, obtain the 
fuel, cook the food and keep the tipi in order. She prepared 
the skins.madeall the garments and ornamented them with quill 
or other work. She made also the covering for the lipi, which 
it was part of her ordinary labor to take down and erect again 
on change of place for encampment. Although the married 
woman 'ed a laborious life, she was her husband's companion 
rather than his slave. She was not allowed to act, however, 
outside of her special sphere. 

But siiRht reference to government is made in the Indian 
stones. Chiefs are often spoken of, but their authority is not 
absolute, depending much on the personal character of the 
man, and their office is not hereditary, although the chief'i 
son or brother appears to have had co-ordinated author- 
ity. The son of a chief moreover was not debarred from suc- 
ceeding him, and the man who married the chief's daughter, if 
he was successful in the chase or in war, was readily accepted 
as his successor. The stories show that a tribe was always at 
war with some other tribes, and the making up of war parties 
by the young men was of common occurrence. These parties 
-appear to have traveled several days before striking 
the enemy. On their return, if they had bten successful, they 
made a special cry and the Scalp Dance was performed. This, 
with other dances, was kept up, for several days, the scalps 
taken being attached to slicks and carried by women. The 
amusements of the people are often referred to by the stories. 
Gambling was one of the chief modes of passing the time. 
In addition to racing, there are references to the game of 
shinny and that of the wheel and stick. The performances of 
the ceremonial lodges miry come under the head of amuse- 
ments, although they are o( a quasi- religious nature, as dancing 
forms so large a part of them. 

The second subject we have to consider is the character of 
the early Indians as depicted in the ancient stories. This may 
be said to be good on the whole, most of the criminal acls re- 
ferred to being committed by cannibals and other quasi-human 
beings, and not by the people themselves. Murder, when com- 
mitted by the latter, was usually atoned for by gifts to the 
tribe, showing a great advance on the primitive system of 
blood revenge. 

The stories would seem to confirm the belief that the people 
were usually quiet and orderly, easily guided, and although 
going on the war path as one of adventure, like hunting, yet 
peaceable at home and observant of the rights of others. 
There are few references to the cruelty which the modern 
Indians displayed towards their enemies. 

Sensual ideas are very prevalent in the stories, although the 



I 



^ 



26 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

sex passion is never actually perverted, except in the union of 
human beings with animals, a notion which is due to the influ- 
ences of another more general idea to which we shall have 
occasion to refer hereafter. It looks as though in evil beings, 
animal or human, we have the embodiment of the sensuality and 
the cunning of the Indian character, qualities which represent 
the animal in human nature, no less with the uncultured Indian 
than with the cultured white man, with whom, indeed, some of 
the Indians have come to associate the name of their evil be- 
ings. This, at first sight, is a grave reflection on the white 
man's character, but the association may have come about io 
another way. The Sioux arc said by Captain W. Pi Clark, in 
his " Indian Sign Language," p. 603, '* to call the whites vocally 
by a name which they claim meant God, before the mission- 
aries came among them," and such may be the real intention of 
the application to them by other tribes of the name of the 
evil being. 

We have arrived at the third series of ideas embodied in the 
Indian stories, the beliefs entertained by the native mind as 
to the relation between man and nature, including other ani- 
mated beings. The most striking feature of the stories is the 
apparent homogeneity between man and animals. Every ob- 
ject in naturae would seem to be regarded as animated. Even 
stones are made to act as though alive, to move about, and 
even to marry women; while trees are not only endowed with 
the faculty of speech, but they have special knowledge and 
also occult power. 

Although trees are supposed to be able to talk, they are not 
accredited with having organs of sense, and as they cannot move 
freely about, they are not on an equality with men. It is true 
that, according to the stories, trees must be able to perceive in 
some fashion, but they have limitations which make them in- 
ferior to animals. As to animals themselves, the features in 
which they differ from man would seem to be regarded as 
marks of superiority, rather than the reverse. 

Animals are credited, moreover, with having greater 
knowledge than is possessed by men. The more mysterious arts 
which constituted the knowledge of the medicine man and of the 
sacred ceremonials are said to have been derived from the buf- 
falo and other animals. The native?' ere close observers of the 
actions of the animals, and these are accredited by the stories 
with the same mental qualities as man possesses, making them 
act like human beings. It is not surprising, therefore, that 
marital unions between human beings and animals are not 
regarded as irregular. 

This fact would seem to show that the native belief was 

. monistip, in.the sense that he regarded all beings, including 

tnan^ as having a common nature. It may be said, indeed, that 

he regarded everything, even trees and stones, as human, a con-. 

clM^^ipn vf Mich J^ight be accepted so far as the higher animals 



r 



LEGENDS or THE AMERICAN INDIANS. 37 

are concerned, a? these and the lowest men are practically on 
the same plane. It is not surprising that the savage mind 
ascribes his own quaUties to all the activities of nature. The 
cteator of the "origin myths " is spoken of as a man. 

The sun and the moon are referred' to as young men, 
or as man and woman. All the cannibals and oiher 
rroral monstrosities are made after the human model, 
particularly the cunning and sensual being, whose traits are 
essentially human, on the lowest plane, although he comes to 
life again after being killed and is sometimes spoken of as 
a creator He appears, moreover, as the author of death; at 
least he throws a stone into the water and says: " Let man's 
life be like this, for if, all live, there will soon be no room for 
them. He bears a curious resemblance in his general character 
to the Christian Devil of the Middle Ages, who indirectly re- 
presents the spirit of evil. Ahriman, who, as the opponent of 
the Good Spirit, Ahura Mazda, is the author of evil thoughts, 
words and deeds, and brings death into the world. 

The general conclusion to be arrived at from a con.sidera- 
tion of the native traditional stories, is that they represent 
a people In a primitive condition of culture. In manners 
and customs th?y differ little from the Plains Indians when first 
known to the while man, or before the destruction of the buf- 
falo compelled them to adopt more sedentary habits than they 
had been previously accustomed to. The people were still in 
the actual Stone Age, Of course the use of other materials, 
such as wood and horn, for certain implements was known, but 
not that of metals, unless the round plates or discs with which 
garments and tjpis were ornamented were of copper. Refer- 
ences to the use oi iron can only be taken as evidence of the 
modern origin of tiie stories containing them, or at least of their 
modern dressing. The traditions belong, moreover, to the age 
of the buffalo^,, which to the early Indian, as to the " red men " 
of history, is the provider of all the necessaries of life. 
Captain W. P. ClarJt remarks (" Indian Sign Language") that 
"the Indians universally believe that the buffalo was made by 
the Creator especially for their use. and certainly when they are 
plentiful ibcy. get- along quit'; comfortably with very little else," 
It suppliedthem with food, clothing, tipi coverings, implements 
of various kinds and fuel. 

The buffalo not only provided the Indians with most 
of the necessaries, of life, but it was regarded also as 
the source of nearly all their ceremonial observenccs for the 
continuation of life and prosperity. The secret knowledge of 
the medicine man was supposed to have been derived from 
them and other animals,, each of which was thought to have 
its own occtilt property. 

The people of the earlier stories lived, moreover, at a 
;period when men-and animals were supposed to be of the same 
.nature, and thought, possibly, to be capable of fruitful inter- 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 

course, although without any evidence in support o( the fact, 
beyond the occasional birth of monstrosities, which to the 
savage mind might well be regarded as due to such intercourse. 
Such a state of mind was required for the origin of the various 
systems of lotemism widely prevalent among the American 
Indians 

As to the actual age of the Indian stories, it is difficult to 
form an opinion. Some of the longer stories have evidently 
undergone much padding by modern narrators or interpreters, 
and there are details which show, that many of them have 
undergone change from time to time. Their general contents, 
however, proclaim them to be of considerable antiquity, a 
probable estimate of which might perhaps be made if more 
were known as to the movements of the buffalo. The Indians 
followed the buffalo in its roamings, and ihe migration of the 
one was probably that of ihe other. It is possible that the 
Indians of North America and the buffalo appeared on this 
contment together, and it may be that the contents of the 
traditional stories, when more fu ly known, will be found to throw 
tight on Ihe place of the actual origm of the American Indians. 



SOME NOTES ON THE ETHNOLOGY OF THE NEl 
HEBRIDES. 



BY JOHN PRASER, LL. D., SVDNEY, AUSTRALIA, 



I 



About 1,300 nautical miles to the northeast of Sydm 
Australia, is the small island of Aneityum, the most southei 
of a group called the New Hebrides, from some fancied 
tion to the old Hebrides on the map of Scotland. 

The great continent of Africa is the home and heritage of 
the negro race. Twelve hundred years ago they were dispos- 
sessed of the northern coast by the inroads of Mohammedans, 
and. in our own day. the south end of the continent is falling 
more and more under the swav of the white man, but Central 
Africa and the lands on the Niger and Lake Ichad and the 
district of the Soudan are still mo>tly free and occupied by 
millions of the black race. The earliest inhabitants of Egypt 
appear to have been negroes, and some ot the Pharaohs mar- 
ried black princesses from the upper Nile. 

It is remarkable that a diluted portion of that great Hamitic 
race dwells now in Australia and ihe seai to the northeast of it, 
and has been there for probably more than 2,000 years. In the 
absence of histoiic-tl records, one must only say "probably." 
for at what time these Australian and Melanesian islands were 
first entered nobody can tell. Reasons can be advauced to 
show that it must have been in the remote past. But, however 
remote their advent may have been, or from whatever quarter 
thev came, no ethnologist will deny that the blacks in our 
regions are akin to the blacks of Africa, for their faces merely 



;|B 



NOTESONTUEETHNOLOGVOP THE NEW HEBRIDES, a^ 

would confute him. Since that is 90, we are met first by the 
inquiry: 

( I ) How did our blacks come to be here f So far away from 
their kinsmen in Africa. A full answer to that means a long 
discussion, bat the gist of it may be given in a condensed form. 
Notwithstanding other theories I take it as proved that the 
original home of the undivided human family was % portion of 
High Asia, to the east of Mesopotamia. Our experience of 
the springs of action in daily life gives me the belief that the 
character of Ham and his sons did not let him remain long in 
concord with their brethren, but led ihem to part. Thus, at 
the dawn of history, the black race (Heb. <rArf>«, ■' warm, hot") 
having descent from Ham, are located on the hot alluvial plains 
«t the head of the Persian Gulf, extending up to the junction 
o( the Two Rivers. On this rich land they must have grown 
to great wealth and power, for Nimrod, the founder of the 
world's most ancient monarchy, was of the sons of Ham 
<Genesis x:8). Hut. in the course of time, some great con 
vulsi'in split the black race in two. The one portion passed 
eastwards through Persia and Afghanistan — where Iraces of 
Ihem are itill to be found — and ultimately into India, where 
they were the eariicst mhabitants. The other part passed west- 
wards through Syria or Arabia into EgypI and Africa gener- 
ally. That is why Genesis x;6 mentions Mizraim (the two 
Egypts, upper and lower) and Phut and Canaan as of Hamitic 
origin. Horodotus, the Greek father of hi-^tory. says explicitly 
that these two main portions of the black race were represented 
in the army of Xerxes when he invaded Greece in 490 B. C, 
These he calls the Eastern and Western Ethiopians, and adds 
that the Eastern Ethiopians served in the army as a contingent 
from India. On his testimony we conclude that, at that date, 
there was in India a true Hamitic people, probably become 
negroid by that time from intermixture and dilution. Such a 

Eeople is still in India, for the great Dravidian nation, which 
olds nearly all the peninsula, south of the VJndhya Moun- 
tains, is negroid, and has been classed by Prof. Huxley along 
with the Australians under the general name of Austraioid, 

It is agreed that the whole of India had for its first popula- 
tion a black race of which these Dravida are now iHe mam re- 
presentatives, and the Vedas. wnich are the sacred literature 
of the Hindus, tell us of the long struggle the invaders of the 
■' Aryan colony " had in subduing the " noseless, eaters of raw 
flesh, non-sacrificing aborigines." This conquest is placed from 
1500 to 1200 B. C, and caused a vast displacement of the 
native people. Besides the Dravida. who kept hold of the 
mouDlam peninsula of the Deccan, other portions of the 
natives took refuge in the Himalayas, and others again went 
forth into Further India, where remnants of them still exist. 
For instance, in the woods of the peninsula of Malacca there 
dwell at this tnoment the woolly-haired Semango — a true 



30 , .. THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. . 

negro tribe — • and in the- Andaman Islands of the Bay of 
Bengal there are the little Mincopies, who in statue and physi- 
que are the brothers of the pygmy Niam<iiam' of the forest* 
of Central Africa. In passing I may here compare' the fact 
that in the inland mountains of the island of Malekula in the 
New Hebrides there is a tribute of diminutive natives, who 
occasionally come down to the coast for. supplies. They are 
said to average from 4 feet 6 inches to 5 feet in height, and are 
very kind and shy. » 

From Farther India the wanderings of the dispersed black 
race led them onwards into the East Indian Islands, then into 
Australia, New Guinea, F'iji, the New Hebrides and all the 
islands now comprehended under the name of Melanesia, or 
" the black islands," Indeed, if this were the place for such a 
discussion, I think it would not be hard to show that all of the 
islands of the South Seas, from Fiji away on to Easter Island 
were peopled first by this same black race. Returning to the 
Malay Archipelago, we have now no traces of negro inhabi- 
tants in Sumatra and Java, but anyone who will look into A. R. 
Wallace's notices of the other islands will see how often he 
finds oortions of them occupied by Alfuros, that is, native 
negroid races. The Aetas, a dwarfish aboriginal people of the 
Philippines are so-named because they are "black.*' They arc 
akin to the Semangs and the Mincopies. The aboriginal Ainos 
of Japan also are supposed to be of black origin. 

From all these preceding facts there seems to me, therefore^ 
to be no difficulty in accounting for the presence of a negroid 
race in the New Hebrides. The severance of their remote 
ancestors in Southern Babylonia occurred, it may be, 5,000 
years ago, and in that long period there is ample room for a 
wide dispersion of the original race and its branches, and we 
need not wonder that, while the negro proper has Africa for 
his home, the disjects membra are now thousands of miles away 
from that home. 

We must here note the fact that the black man pf our seas 
is negroid, not negro. And yet I have seen in the New Hebrides 
some faces which are more negro than negroid; one man especi- 
ally reminded me forcibly of an Australian, who used to come 
to my house and was an excellent example of the Austral- 
Negro. I have also seen here some who have the everted^ 
thin lips of the typical Hottentot; many others, however, have 
the abnormally thick lips of the African negro; all the natives 
have hair frizzly and crisp, but not woolly; the end of the nose is 
broad and the nostrils distended, as in the negro; the bridge 
of the nose is much depressed, as in the Australian, and some- 
times almost wanting, although I have seen several men who 
have straight European noses. The hair on the face is in some 
plentiful, in others scanty. The teeth are strong, regular and 
good, like those of the Australian and the negro. 

Some one, at this point, may say to me, '* If the natives of 



NOTES ON THE ETHNOLOGY OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 3I 

the New Hebrides and of the rest of Melanesia be, as you 
allege, of the same common origin as the negros of Africa, 
how is it that the Australians. Melanesians and other eastern 
branches have departed from the original type and become 
negroid?" The answer is at hand — by admixture, You have 
ia your garden a red Clarkia and a white Clarkia. If thess 
are allowed to mix freely, and the resulting varieties to mix 
with themselves and the original stock, you get at last flowers 
which are still Clarkias, but are much modified in form and 
color. Now, when the original dispersion of the black race 
took place, the western branch had.only to pass through what 
is now called Arabia in order to enter Egypt, and thus establish 
a home for themselves in a new and unoccupied land; but the 
eastern branch, from which our natives here are sprung, had to 
go through Persia, ihe two Indias and Indonesia before they 
could reach our islands; In each of these countries a reil of 
only a few hundred years would produce a modification of 
physical type by marriage with the Mongolian and Aryan ele- 
ments which lay near them; and so the hair ceased to be 
woolly, the bridge of the nose was elevated and the nose itself 
got straighter, and even in some cases the eye became slightly 
oblique in its orbit. Admixture with alien race* will account 
for everything that is divergent in the physiques of our natives. 
It is my opinion that the first inhabitants of the New 
Hebrides did i.ot come in at once, but that there were several 
successive streams of immigrants — perhaps three or more^at 
long intervals of time. The last of these may have been as 
late as 1200 A. D., when the Malays appeared in the Indian 
Archipelago as conquerors. That and other previous events of 
the same kind must have brought on, as usual, a movement of 
peoples; in modern Africa a large tribe has been known to b: 
driven from its territory and obliged to settle hundreds of 
miles away, from a similar cause. But we may assume that 
the blacks who came here first were of a more ancient and 
purer type than the next comers, and the others after them a 
still more mixed lot, with a different physique and color, 
language, ceremonies and dress. , Each of these points de- 
lenres separate notice, which, however, cannot be given at 
Tsent. 




THE RUINS OF INDIAN CHURCH IN BRITISH 

HONDURAS. 

BY REV. F. DE P. CASTELLS, BELIZE, BRITISH HONDURAS. 

In September, 1902, 1 had the good fortune of being able 
to visit the settlement of Mahogany cutters at the point known 
as ** Indian Church" (in the northern section of this Colony), 
near the New River Lagoor. The New River runs from about 
the centre of our western boundary, traversing the lagoon 
mentioned, and empties into the Atlantic Ocean at Corozal, 
near the entrance ot Chetumal Bay. Its total length is nearly 
a hundred miles, and it is navigable for the greater part of it. 

Naturally enough, my first inquiry was about the aboriginal 
name of this district; but herein I failed, for none could be 
discovered. The aborigines, or " Indians," still living in it 
speak Maya, and when consulted, answered that the place had 
always been called Ichinchech, which, obviously enough, is an 
attempt to imitate the sound of our English name. 

Assuming that the name was designed to signify {far I had 
no positive information) that in former days there had been some- 
where near by a church or temple of some sort, I proceeded to 
investigate whether there remained any ruins, works or other 
relics, of the old building, and in this I was fortunate, for Mrs, 
Dewgard. the owner of the Mahogany Works, knew all about 
it, and immediately gave me two guides, who took me to the 
precise spot, opening up a way through the bush with their 
machetes as we went along. This good lady stated that the 
few people who have seen the ruins had the idea that the build- 
ing had originally been a *• Roman Catholic Church." But t|ie 
idea is utterly preposterous, and I can only account for it by 
the ignorance that prevails concerning the aborigines. 

Once on the spot, I at once sought to reproduce on paper 
the plan of the building, and as this was so easily done, a copy 
of it is appended as illustrating the brief remarks that will fol- 
low. As a matter of fact, one h^s only to glance at the plan 
and observe both the divisions and the measurements, to sec 
clearly that the building was not designed to shelter any con- 
siderable concourse of people and could not, therefore, have 
been used for worship by a Christian congregation. 

An old Maya->peaking Indian living in the neighborhood, 
by name KuUuth, assured .Tie that when he was a lad (probably 
sixty years since) the structure was still almost entire save for 
the roof, of which no traces existed even then. On the other 
hand, the c'eaving of the walls through the centre suggests 
that it is tumbling down from extreme old age. The mortar 
used for it, which is still fairly hard, has preserved its whiteness, 
but this is from the abundance of lime which it contains, this 



r 



THE RUINS OF INDIAN CHURCH 



33 



latter material being very plentiful in Ihal vicinity. The stones 
employed by the builders are unhewn and of very irregular 
shapes. The thickness of the walls is really remarkable, one 
yard and fivf iiiehts throtigltoiU the building, and this even for the 

Cartitions. It is impossible to ascertain their original height, 
ut the highest poriion of the wall now extant is fully sixteen 
feel above the ground; the top is broken, so that it may have 
been much higher, which would account for their extraordinary 
thickness. 

The two siJe rooms had wide doors, it is evident from the 
stones projecting out nt ihe upper angles of the entrance of 
the side rooms as they have sockets into which the corner 
points of the doors would be inserted, so as turn in and out. 
At this entrance, Ihe wall is cut aslant, so that it widens toward 

i—i*. ft-A ^t-*- ^ 



in 



IT 







mm 

the inside. Tht- central apartment which was the sanctuary 
proper, and faced the declining sun, has no such sockets, so 
that it may be doubted whether it ever had any doors at all. 
On examining the debris in the interior. I observed four large 
circular stones, which were evidently loose sections of pillars; 
the) must have belonged to the sanctuary, for they still are 
there, with only one exception; their dimensions are: diameter, 
17 inches; length, 21 inches. At firat sight they look like bar- 
rels of cement that have become petrified by moisture; but one 
of them has split open through the centre, and shows it to be 
real stone- These pillars may have stood at the main entrance 
supporting a Imlel, which would then imply the existence of a 
door, as we find at the Castle of Chichen Itza; but (aswasaisc 
the case with two columns in the latter place) they may have 
stood in the iDDcr room to support the large beams of the roof. 



51 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

but whatever their potitioa they were probaly s3nnbo!ical and 
may have been inscribed upon. 

At present we cannot discover any traces of windows, if 
any ever existed, or of any mural decorations; but in the south 
apartment, and on the west wall, there is a peculiar cavity or 
niche shaped thus Q, the measurements being: width, 24 
inches; height, 28 inches; depth, 20 inches, this latter being 
just half the thickness of the wall. What this could have been 
used for, it is hard to surmise. It seems very unlikely that it 
was a common shelf; it may have been a receptacle for the 
ritual vessels, or for the sacred books, that is, the records which 
the priests had to consult to determine the oracle. 

Just outside the Temple, near the northwest angle, there 
are two raised blocks of stone, which are very conspicuous, and 
through the difference in size, recall those used by some 
primitive tribes for marking the limits of a grave, the large one 
showing where the head lies, and the small one the feet. At 
Indian Church the large one is 46 inches above ground, 28 
inches broad and 12 thick: the second (fifty inches further away 
from the tnain tntrance) stands 10 inches high, is 17 inches broad 
and 10 inches thick. Both these stones have the surface too 
uneven to be taken for altar-tablets, probably they were in- 
tended to mark the periods of 24 years {afutu katun)^ which the 
builders of the temple passed as an organized community set- 
tled in that locality; similar stones have been found in Mayapan, 
Zilan, etc. and this was found to be their object. 

That the building was really an aboriginal temple, is. there- 
fore, made over-evident; but in considering the matter we 
should not overlook the tangible proof which is afforded by 
the resemblance of its plans to that of other aboriginal shrines 
in settlements anterior to the Spanish Conquest. Like most 
oratorios it contains three divisions, stands on an eminence 
commanding a broad view of the surrounding plain, and is 
situated at a point accessible by water; the actual distance 
from the edge of the water is about ninety paces, the ground 
sloping down so as to make the ascent very easy. 

Ahout a quarter of a mile to the north of the Temple, that 
is, going down the river, there is a large mound, now over- 
grown with high brush, but no one has ever attempted to open 
it. Similar ones exist further away, going down the river. It 
is hard to imagine what these mounds could have been for. 
It is said that they form one continuous chain stretching to the 
end of Chetumal Hay and at intervals varying from six to 
twelve miles, altogether for a distance of "nearly 150 miles" 
of the coast line. The top of the mound at Indian Church is 
covered with a multitude of stones suggestive of ruined con- 
structions. The people also spoke of *'The Rock " at Stone 
Bank, where potsherds, axe heads, and other aboriginal imple- 
ments, have been found, and of which I obtained some samples. 
Carved stones have been brought to light, but have not been taken 



THE RUINS OF INDIAN CHURCH. 

care of; no one was able to say whether these latter contained 
any inicriptions, or glyphs, but the probability is that if any 
had been discovered they would not have been recognized as 
such by those people. 

1 attach some importance to these ruins, and have made 
Ihera the subject of a careful study, mainly because they hap- 
pen to be situated in thai part of Central America which is 
best known to archaeologists. My idea is that excavations 
around and inside this Temple, as well as at the other places 
mentioned, would yield some results. As both the New River 
and the Hondo flow down from Pettn, Indian Church lies on 
the way to the Vaxhaa Lake, where ruins of some importance 
arc known to exist, and also shows the course taken b)' the 
Indians when they abandoned the coast. 

The above description would not be complete without a few 
wordi as to the historic significance of the ruins, and this can 
only be dctermmed by the consideration of other data. The 
author of -Mounds in Northern Honduras" (XlXth Ann. Re- 
port Bureau of Am. Ethn.), speaking of the buried edifice 
which he found at Santa Rita, near the mouth of the New 
Kiver, says it was the work of '" the Toltecs." who. according lo 
him, had also " founded I'alenque. etc.," and assigns it to 
"somewhere bttween the end of the twelfth century and the 
end of the fifteenth "; he being of the opinion that it was des- 
troyed by the same people, either because of an evil augury at 
the close of a cycle, or else for fear of desecration by the 
Spaniards after their occupation of Bacalar. 

Now. it seems clear that the two temples, though unlike in 
form and construction, have a common origin. Of the one in 
Santa Rita it is >aid the stucco of the paintings had been twice 
renewed, which means thai it was at lean two cycles, or 104 
years, old. The writer might properly have gone a step further 
and added that counting this from the last Feast of the New 
Fire (when such renovations as he refers to. took piace), that 
is to say, from A. D. 1507. we are led back to A. D. 1.J03. Hut 
it might have been built sometime between two cycles, and was 
most probably built at Ihe commencement of the preceding 
one and then, if so, the dates would be: for the two renova- 
tions, 1403 and 1455 A. D.; and for the erection of the Temple, 
A. D. 135'. 

Again, if the destruction of this Temple was due to the 
advent of the Spaniards, the dates of their various expeditions 
must be considered. The first to land in this portion of the 
continent were Valdivia and his fourteen companions, wrecked 
off Cape Catoche rn A. D. 1 i;i 1. all of whom were made slaves; 
then came Hcrnandi de Cordoba, in 1517, who landed at the 
same place, but was repulsed by the Indians; the first attempt 
at conquest was made by Alonso de Avila, who came in 1527, 
but the task was such a hard one that it was not accomplished 
until 1545. when Caspar Pacheo undertook it in \ more thorough 



36 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

way. Ancoa, the historian, states that from 1 5 17 the people 
began to emigrate inland and the stream of migration in- 
creased considerably after 1545. Assuming that the presence 
of the Spaniards were the cause for the desertion of the Santa 
Rita Temple, this last date should be the true one; but it would 
seem that the real motive was the alternative given above. 

It has been said that the Temple was built by "the Toltecs." 
But who were the Toltecs? A great deal is attributed to them, 
but as a matter of fact there are very conflicting accounts of 
them; and as for Palenque, or Xibalba, and Lorillard City, far 
from having been built by the Toltecs, they were the work of 
an older race, who abandoned them because of the Toltec in- 
vasion. Nay, further, it was the advance of the Toltecs (other- 
wise called Nahuas) into lower Yucatan that brought about the 
abandonment of the settlement at Santa Rita. 

About the middle of the nineteenth century, there was a 
feud between the Chan Santa Cruz Indians, of Central East 
Yucatan, and the Chichenhaas, who occupied the region to the 
south of the Hondo River. At that time the Chichenhaas 
claimed sovereign rights over the northern district of this 
Colony, and as late as 1868, they marched through it (under 
the leadership of the warlike Canut) to demand an indemnity 
of 53,000 from the people of Corozal for having supplied arms 
and ammunition to their foes; which demand, however, was 
not enforced because of the sudden appearance of their 
enemies on the scene. Now, this feud was not a new thing, 
but the inveterate and traditional hatred of two antagonistic 
races. Which races? It is true that they both spoke Maya; 
but the Chan Santa Cruz were genuine Toltecs, while the 
Chichenhaas were Itzaes, the descendants of those who in early 
days had built both Itzmal and Chichen-Itza, but who, when 
the Spaniards came, had been driven south and organized a 
new kingdom, with its capital in Pet^n. 

The struggle between the aboriginal element and the ad- 
vancing Toltecs is most interesting. The Toltecs encroached 
on the aborigines by degrees, yet for a long time both races 
lived in close proximity in the same territory. But in 1460 
there was a confederation of chiefs, who took Mayapan and 
destroyed it, and this event coincides both with the final 
abandonment of Chichen-Itza by the Itzaes and with their con- 
sequent migration ai masse towards the region where in later 
times we meet with the Chichenhaas. This name Chichenhaas 
means simply *' waters of Chichen," and arose probably from 
the fact that the people having taken possession of Pet^n from 
before the fall of Mayapan, they considered themselves the 
masters of all the territory traversed by the streams flowing 
from their new capital, even to the Atlantic coast. But, on the 
other hand, when the Spaniards arrived. Chetumal and Bacalas 
were already in the hands of the Toltec Mayas (if we may so 
combine the names), and, consequently, the conclusion we 



THE RUINS OF INDIAN CHURCH. 37 

is: isl, That the abandonment of Santa Rita was due 
to the continued advance of the Toltecs; and 2nd, that the 
time of it was the conclusion of the cycle {filhfrin A. D. 14SS 
or A. D. isoy), when the priests were expected to forecast the 
events of the next cycle 

One other circumstance that commends this explanation of 
the burying of the Santa Rila Temple ts, the incompatibility 
that there was between the teligious creeds professed by the 
Toltecs and Itzaes. The former had a gloomy religion, with 
human sacrifices, full of bloody mystcTies; whereas the Itzaes 
were a sort of Druids who practised neither human sacrifices 
noT idol-worship. As the reports were continually coming, of 
the gradual spread of the Toltecs in Yucatan, the Itzaes would 
fear desecration; and so. when th"^ cycle came to an end, the 
time having come when the priests should consult their oracles 
regarding the next fifty-two years, what more natural than their 
prediction of new invasions, and the advice to retreat by the 
only way open to them— the river? 

It is this that explains the origin of the oiher Temple at 
Indian Church. After those people would have gone seventy 
miles up the stream, they would probably consider the pic- 
turesque plain to the east of the lagoon as a sale spot on which 
to settle and there, therefore, they proceeded to build a temple 
which, though much simpler in form and construction than 
the one left behind, would answer the purpose just as well, at 
least for a time. The building has nothing remarkable in the 
way of architecture, and the plan is a crude one, but under the 
circumstances described, those people would not dispose of 
very great material resources, while during the period of 200 
years and more that had elapsed since their defeat at Chichen- 
Ilza. the raj:e must have gone on declining in every respect. 
We cannot tell how long this settlement lasted, but if the two 
stones outside represent two periods of twenty-four years, they 
would then bring us down to A. D. 1555. Only four years 
later would be the Feast of the New Fire when, Sahagun tells 
us. 1/ thf ornun xuas propitious, the work of renovation was taken 
in hand. By now. however, the Spaniards had conquered all 
Yucatan, and the Toltec Mayas were once more on their heels, 
fleeing from the conqueror, as they themselves had had to do; 
and this, together with the absence of any more cyclical stones 
or inscriptions, leads us to suppose that the Feast of the New 
Fire was not kept, but that the Temple was abandoned and the 
people retreated still further inland. 




ANTHROPObOGICAb NOTES. 



BY ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN. 

Sculptured Stones of the Jura. In the '• Bulletins dc la 
Soci^t^ d'Anthropologic dc Paris" (1903, pp. 20-50) M. B. 
Reber treats in detail the prehistoric sculptured rocks of the 
French Jura. These consist of erratic blocks about the foot 
and southern flank of the Jura, from P'ort de TEcluse to 
Divonne, — part of the old basin of the Leman. They arc 
popularly known as '* Druidic " monuments. The carving! 
upon them are usually superficial and not at all deep, and 
numbers of the markings are difficult to recognize. The prin- 
cipal sculptured rocks of the region in question are: the two 
stones of Parey, one of which is said to be ** one of the finest 
and most interesting of all such rocks ** (the surface is almost 
completely covered with markings, '* canals," ** pits," etc.); the 
Feni^res stone; the big Piram, near the village of Allemogne, 
which, together with other rocks in the neighborhood, is said 
to have been rolled into the field where it stands by the giants; 
the "Troclaz," or *' Eagle Stone," on the slope of Mt. Curson; 
the '* Pirra a Crotte," the central portion of which is thickly 
covered with *' pits " and "canals," — this stone is situated high- 
est of all up the slope of Mt. Reculet; the " Pirra a Passon/* 
situated in the Combe a Passon, which seems to bear traces of 
recent '* rubbing" with pieces of stone in the hands of visitors; 
the " Pirra Liozet, ' or "sliding stone" (the depression in it 
from top to bottom explains the name), — the author states that 
in his own commune, tradition had it that just such an erratic 
block had concealed within it new-born children. If a 'mid- 
wife succeeded in going around it three times whistling without 
stopping, the child that came out would be a boy, otherwise a 
girl; the Tiambron stone, which has twenty-one typical **pits,** 
this and other rocks near-by, the peasants say, were the balls 
with which giants once played; '* Samson's stone" at Saint- 
Claude, Thiory, which contains, according to popular belief, 
imprints of the hand and the right foot of Samson (of the lat- 
ter M. Reber says, " One would swear that it was a piece of 
sculpture, so striking is the shape and so perfect the form"), 
its popular name is "Samson's chair"; the "Big stone" of 
Arb^re, near Divonne; the " Goliath stone "; the " heath stone/* 
believed to be a rocking-stone by the peasantry, upon which, 
in order to be happy in life, each child born in the commune 
of Perron (quite populous) must climb, and also every year 
faggot fires are kindled on it, and beneath it, and pieces of 
the burning wood carried as a symbol of fecundity to every 
house, including those where for years no children have been 



AWTMROPO LOGIC AT. NOTES. » 

born; the stones of Mulet-Cunier {one immense block is called 
the "mule stone"); the "stone of Parythiole" and the rest of 
its group {pary or fmrey. we are told, is the dialect word for 
"boundary, limit." from which the "Parey stone" noticed above 
also took its name, and tkiole is said to be a Celtic term for 
"altar" or "boundary-stone "); the stones of Lacombc, with a 
phallic figure upon it, etc. Some of thest sculptured rocks 
are evidently of prehistoric type; others, however, are not so 
beyond a doubt. Some have, perhaps, served as altars, or for 
some other religious purpose; others may be merely of folk- 
origin, without special esoteric significance. Their number is 
un expectedly large. 

■L 

^^■pDlsENTis Type. The so-called " Discntis type" is the sub- 
^^^^ of a special study by E. Wettstein, " Zur Anthropologic 
und Eihnographie des Kreises Disentis " (Ziirich. 1Q02. p. 181), 
of which E. Fischer gives a brief review in the " Centralblaii 
lur Anthropologic " (1903, pp- 107-108). The examination of 
osseous remains from the cemeteries of the district of Disentis 
in the Grisons, has led several authorities to recognize a 
"Discntis type." characterized by brachycrphalism (936 per 
cent.), somewhat spherical skull, steep forehead, flat crown, 
perpendicularly descending occiput, face neither very broad 
nor very high, orthognathism, etc. To the Disentis type be- 
long most of the Wallis skulls and part of the Waadtland 
crania, bvt not the brachycephalic lake-dweller skulls of Switzer- 
land. The position of the skulls from the interior of Switzer- 
land and the Tirol skulls of Tappeiner with respect to the 
Disentis type is uncertain. Closely related to it are the brachy- 
cephalic skulls of Bavaria and Baden, and especially those 
from the Alsatian cemeteries, and perhaps also Deniktr's 
" fourth race." The type is, of course, nowhere unm'xed, but 
is purest in the Grisons. The few data from the living in- 
habitants seem to indicate a dark-haired, grey (or brown) eyed 
people of middle height. Weltstein's book contains a mass 
of ethnographic, linguistic and folk loric material besides the 
oaatic section. 






'KoUAN Skulls. In his paper on '" Cranai Romani Modern! " 
Iti d. Soc. Rom. di Antr., 1903, pp. 297336), E. E. Tedetchi 
firings out some interesting facts from the examination (after 
Scrgi's method) of fifty modern Roman skulls now in the 
Anthropological Museum in Rome, in comparison with other 
skulls from the various periods of ancient Roman history. 
At all epochs the ellipsoid, ovoid, and pentagonoid types seem 
to prevail, leading to the conclusion that they formed the 
baais of the Roman people, who were of the Mediterranean 
stock. Although, in the time of the Republic new types are 
found mingling with the old, the latter continue to predominate. 



40 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Okapi and Set. F'rom Dr. Thilenius' review (Cbl. fur 
Anthr., 1903, p 115) of A. Wiedemann's paper on ** Das 
(^krpi im Alten Aef^ypten," which appeared in the **Umschan" 
for 1902. we learn that the author beh'eves that '* the Okapi 
presents all the essential traits which characterize the head of 
the sacred animal ot the old Egyptian god Set." If so, the 
newly-discovered Okapi was very well Icnown of old to the 

Egyptians. 

* * * 

TiiK Nk(;ro Foot. In an article on "Der Plattfuss des 
Ncijcrs" (Dtsche. Med. Wchnschr., 1902), Dr. Muskat, from 
the examination of the feet of six negroes of Togoland, in 
German West Africa, comes to the conclusion that the idea 
formerly common that ** flat foot *' was a racial-mark of the 
negro is erroneous, such a condition of the foot, where it 
occurs, being due to the same causes producing it among the 
hard working, heavily-burdened classes of our own race and 
communities. The feet of the Togo subjects were normal and 

well built. 

« * « 

Suck 1,1 N(i. According to Neumann (Deutsche. Med. 
Wchnschr., i(/)2) the Berlin statistics of feeding infants show 
that while, for 1SS5 the figures for mother- feeding, nurse-feed- 
ing, and feeding with animal milk were respectively 55.1 per 
cent., 27 per cent., and 33.9 per cent., for 1900 they were 31.4 
per cent., 0.7 per cent., and 54.8 per cent. The decrease in 
nurse-feeding seems due to the spread of the use of the 
Soxhlet apparatus. Of 1407 illegitimate infants 337 received 
mother's milk, 12 nurse's milk, the rest cow milk. This pecu- 
liarity of the modern ** Kulturmcnsch" seems to be decidedly 

on the increase. 

* * « 

I^AiNTF.n Runk-Stones The find of Runic stones made in 
the summer of i()00, beneath the floor of the church at Gadro 
on the island of Gotland, of which a detailed account (briefly 
rtXsumrd by Dr. Almgren in the ** Centralblatt fiir Anthro- 
nologia," Vol. VII., 1902, pp. 188-189) has been published by 
II. Pipping, is of more than passing interest. On three of the 
srven rune stones of Gadre are still present traces of red 
painting. This confirms the opinion held in certain quarters 
that many of the rune stones were painted or treated with 
some coloring matter. The Gadre find dates probably from 
the early half of the eleventh century. 





bITERARY NOTES. 



THE RED MEN OF BRAZIL. 

It is not often that the Red mtn of Brazil are brought be- 
lore the public, either by books, papers, or any other means. 
The lesull is that really little information has been gained of 
them for years. While great interest has been attached to the 
aborigines oE the northern continent, and has been manifested 
in the peo[.lc of northern Mexico and the Incas of Peru, the 
history of Brazil and the Brazilians has been neglected, 

A book has, however, been recently published by the F. H. 
Revell Co., which was written by the Rev. Hugh C.Tucker, 
an agent of the American Bible Society, which is of very con- 
siderable Interest from an ethnological standpoint. 

Mr. Tucker says: "The aborigines of this country are for 
the most part of a copper color; of medium, height; rather 
heavy set. with muscular chests; thick, straight, black hair; 
black eyes, and broad faces. In disposition, they arc generally 
apathetic and undemonstrative. The tribes are not habitually 
or widely nomadic, nor can they be said to be permanently 
settled. Each tribe in a general way keeps within certain 
limits, unless driven out by a superior force. The country is 
well watered, and abounds in plantain, yams, mandioca root and 
a great variety of vegetable palm, as well as great quantities of 
fish and game. They have never felt the necessity of that ex- 
ertion which tends to civilization. It is evident that they have 
long known the use of fire for roasting, boiling and drying 
food before they knew the white man; also for making signals 
when hunting in the forest, and for warming the body. Their 
method of producing fire was by the friction of two pieces of 
wood. The most generally prevailing religious belief among 
them seems to be that there are three great chief gods: the 
5un. which was the god of the animal kingdom; the moon, god 
of the vegetable kingdom, and Ruda, the god of love, or god 
of all reproduction. Besides these they have an abundance of 
subordinate or inferior gods, 

" Their burial custom in depositing at the grave the bow and 
arr^w, and vessels in which they prepare food, would indicate 
that they have some idi-a of immortality or the happy hunting 
ground of the future, The curious custom observed in some 
tribes when a person dies, of hanging a certain number ot 
friends and relatives of nearly his own age, in order that he 
may have suitable company in the next world, is also quite 
significant. 

■'Certain aborigines have been found to be warlike, feroci- 
ous, revengeful and blood thirsty. Some of them were canni- 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

bals and ate Iheir relatives with great ceremony. Some made 
war for the purpose of obtaining food; others ate their rela- 
tives as a mark of dislinguishmenl. There was at first con- 
siderable fiicndliness between them and the whites, which 
resulted in leaching Ihcni the arts o( civilisation and many of 
the vices. Then followed efforts on the part of the Europeans 
to enslave Ihem, which were resented by the chiefs, and re- 




INDIANS OF THE AMAZON VALI.ET. 

suited in the most bloody and cruel encounters. The Jesuit 
missionaries did much to ameliorate these inhuman scenes. 
Through their efforts and tUc civilizing influence of the Euro- 
peans, thousands have been gradually absorbed into the mixed 
civilization and whole tribes have disappeared. 

The importation of negroes began in n general 
arrival of the white selllen. In 1516 a slave 




THE RED MEN OF BRAZIL. 



43 



Itatchet. The importation of blacks constantly increased, and 
the slave trade continued until 1850. A Brazilian writer says 
that the negroei form the most robust race of Brazil, The 
priests have generally been consideied the fnends of the slaves. 
The mass of the blacks still follow the superstitious fetishism 
of their African ancestors. In a general way there is a free 
intercourse, and marriages arc conin'on between the whites, 




blacks and mixed races, and these occasionally marry with 
doinesttcated Indians. They all mingle together under one 
government and enjoy all the privileges, -nd arc at peace so 
far as color and race are concerned. There are class distinctions 
in society, but thi-y come more by wealth, position and influ- 
ence than from color. The amalgamation of the three races 



44 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

has been going on in Brazil for 400 years. The influence of 
priestcraft and slavery has tended to give much seclusion to 
the family life, or rather to the female portion of the family. 

It is singular that the supersitition of the natives has gath- 
ered around the memory of one of the Jesuits — one of the 
seven Jesuits who were sent out in 1753 — named Anchieia, and 
he is the subject of a great number of legends and fables 
He has been styled by some the ** Thauma t jrgus *' of the 
New World, being the head of all of them and the founder of 
all the world, as Adam in Paradise. A book describing the 
miracles which were performed by him and by water poured 
over his bones has been published, and has had great effect in 
increasing the superstition. Polytheism and idolatry have 
not been overthrown, but perhaps sustained by the practices of 
the church. 

The Indians seen in the cuts are good representatives of 
the prehistoric race, and the manner of ornamenting and 
decorating the person Many of the tribes continue their oldcus- 
toms. When a perscn is buried they deposit food pots and bow 
and arrow, that they may provide themselves with game. In the 
valley of the Amazon some tribes bury their dead in huts, 
with the hope that while they are asleep they may be buried 
by those who love them. It is plain that the aboriginal cus- 
toms have continued to the present time. This is illustrated 
by the manner in which they decorate their person; the same 
head-dress which was worn by the chiefs, consisted of plumes 
of various colors, which formed a semi circle above the head; 
a sort of diadem or chaplet surrounded the forehead; tassels 
were attached to the ear; necklaces fell from the neck, and 
other ornaments hung from the shoulders and covered the 
breast; the shoulders were also covered with plumes of differ- 
ent colors; around the wrists woven bands; around the waist a 
wide woven band, and from it hung feathers and plumes of 
different colors, making a short skirt; while around the knees 
and anklets are other bands from which hang plumes. In one 
hand is the long spear, in the other is the staff from which is 
suspended the badge of office. The author has unconsciouly 
contributed, or brought before the eye, a good specimen of the 
costume which was common in prehistoric times, with some 
variations. The book is not intended as a work on archaeology 
or ethnology, but is nevertheless valuable, for it describes the 
country and the people as they are at present. The author un- 
derwent many hard-hips in carrying out his mission of distri- 
buting bibles among the people, but he had access to the 
homes and saw the people as they are to-day. 

There is, perhaps, no spot on the earth where the grandeur, 
beauty and harmony of surrounding nature stood out with such 
boldness as at Rio de Janiero. A miniature summer sea, sleeps 
within the embrace of gigantic mountain chasms, upon whose 
bosom rest a thousand fairy isles, and around whose shores 



THE RED MEN OF BRAZIL. 4$ 

dimple a hundred tiny bays. The coast is mountainous and 
picturesque giving rise lo the name "The Sleeping Giant." 
The wonderful flora of the tropics with its marvelous lights and 
shade, the curious spires of the churches, the variegated colors 
of the houses, «el in the background of brown and gray peaks, 
lighted up by the shining waters of the bay, make the whole 
scene a most entrancing picture. 

Coffee raising is the chief industry of ihe highland region 
near the coast. The climate is warm and the soil fertile, and 
the coffee farms are productive. On the Rio Doce in the in- 
ttrior the land is much higher and becomes mountainous or 
hiily. 

The San Francisco river is especially interesting, because of 
the villages and settlements, some of which are in decay and 
ruins. The river abounds in fish. When the dry season sets 
in the people move down from the mountains and hillsides to 
plant iheir corn, rice, beans, potatoes and mandioca along the 
flat banks of the river. They follow the same method practiced 
when they were wild. There ia no breaking up of the ground 
needed; it is quite suflicient to rtjake a hole with a sharp- 
pointed stick, drop the seed in and cover it. The soil under- 
neath the deposit of sand is very fertile, and furnishes sufiRcient 
moisture for the growth of a crop, with the aid of compara- 
tively little rain. 

Many of them build booth* or a shelter of palms and other 
branches of tree^; some make no shelter at all, but simply take 
up Iheir abode (or four or five months under the spreading 
Gamilierra tree. They generally sleep on a kind of mat made 
of coarse reeds woven together, and have very few cooking 
utensils, no tables or chairs, and eat from a tin pan or gourd 
with the hands, — knives and forks and spoons being of little 
use to them. While the crops are growing they fish, cutting 
the fish in slices and hang it on poles. Just before the rains 
set in the traders barter to the planters for dry-goods and salt, 
for beans and rice, and load their vessels for the homeward 
voyage and are borne down the stream by the first freshet; 
while ihe planters return to the hills and mountains, and spend 
the time in idleness until the next planting season, 

Ab lut eighty miles from Carinhauhas is a village where 
there is a great stone, about 600 or 800 feet long and about 
250 feet wide, lying upon a dead level, which is known as the 
crouching lion — what one writer terms the "headless sphinx." 
It is a natural formation; deep black cracks— at altitudes vary- 
ing from 10 to 30 feel— run hori/.ontally, forming gigantic 
courses of masonry. At the southwestern end is a vertical 
precipice where the stone has been removed. Here is a natural 
grotto, varying in width from 20 to 50 feet; the entrance has 
been closed with a strong wooden door, fastened with a pon- 
drous lock. Six stone steps lead up to this door, inside is an 
apartment like a vestibule. Ten steps lead up to the holy 



THE AMElUCAN ANTIQUARIAN, 

grotto; near the entrance is an altar, over the altar the ceiling 
IS arched, hanging from which a nunibcr of stalactites are leen. 
The altar is at ihe farther end of the cave, on a raised plat- 
form, the image of Baune Jesus dc Lopa— not more than two 
feet in height— is encased in a gaudy shrine. This image is 
supposed to have healing power, and 25,000 persons have gooe 
annually to worship at the shrine. 

NATIVE TRIBES OF THE PHILIPPINES. I 

The interest which was awakened in the Philippine Islands 
and the people there, which was felt during the Spanish- 
American war. has subsided, and yet there are many problems 
remaining to be solved. 

The foliowinj is taki-n from the report of the Rev. James 
Rogers of Manilla, published in the Miisiotuiry Revun- in 1901; 




GROUP OF IGOROTES. M 

Scattered tribes of wild men inhabit the backbone of Luzon" 
and are found in many of the other islands, hidden from the 
gaze of the traveller and soldier. The only ones who have 
come into any notice are the Igorotes of the nothern provinces, 
whose faithfulness and trustworthiness arc favorably com- 
mented on by the officers and men who met them. Of the 
other tribes very little is known, for in the olden times civili- 
zation only showed her brutal aspects to them, and they have 
become more savage and timid. Their object in life has been 
to escape the effects of the white man's civilization and religion. 
They were treated as little better than wild animals, and writers 
refer to the Spanish motto, or injunction, so often repeated: 
" When you see one of the wild men, shoot him." 



w 



NATIVE TRIBES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 



47 



Experience has shown that the Igorotes, when treated with 
fairness and justice, have proven trustworthy. It is fair to 
suppose that other tribes will also be susceptible to fairness 
and kindness. The descendants of the original tribes have all 
but succumbed to the white people who inhabit the islands; 
these came into the islands at an early date. Another branch 
of the Malay race seem to have come in later. There ii also 
a small population of the Filippinos in the towns that surround 
Mindanao; they are exotic and not native to the soil, and 
many of these traders — many of them exiles, who were sent 
from different parts of the north tor criminal offences. 

In Zamboanga, Spanish is the language of the people, as 
they represent so many different ones that no one of them 
served as the medium of speech. Side by side with these 
Filippinos, and also in the interior, are the Mohamadan tribes^ 
who are the most numerous and powerful, of the Island o( 




GHOUI- OF NBfiHlTOS. 

Mindanao and almost the only inhabitants of Bassilan and 
Paleiram. The problem here is the sami- as in Borneo, the 
Straits, and probably similar to the Mohamedan problem in 
India and Persia. It has been said many times that ihe Moros 
do not think that the Americans are Christians because they 
are different from the Spaniards, but that they are a kind of 
second cousin to the descendants of Mohamed, possibly by his 
second wife; implying that the Americans are a little nearer to 
the natives, especially those who are Mohamedans, than the 
Spaniards. 

The pictures which are presented herewith represent the 
two classes of inhabitants, the Igorotes and the Negritos, of 
the Philippine Islands. These are both different from the 



4% THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Mohamedans and dress themselves in modern costumes, with 
turbans about their heads, coats or tunics with flowing sleeves, 
sashes about their shoulders, and loose pants; while the native 
Negritos and Moros go nearly naked. The Negritos live in 
huts, with a framework thatched both sides and top. 

The population of the Philippines is made up of a great 
variety of races. The Negritos are the lowest, and the Taga- 
logues are the most civilized. The following may be taken as 
an approximation to the real numbers: the Rosayans number 
2,601.600; the Tagalogues, 1,163,900; the Lakotes, 5i8,cxx); 
the Negritos are subdivided into about twenty tribal hordes, 
and number about 25,000,000; the Malayans are divided into 
about forty-seven tribes or races, and number about 6,ooo,ooc. 

4-f 



EDITORIAL. 



SUPERSTITION A MEANS OF DEFENSE. 

The religious sense was strongly developed among the 
various tribes of North America It had the effect of bring- 
ing all the members of each tribe into harmony and gave great 
authority to the priests and chiefs, and may be said to have 
been the source of nearly all the authority possessed by them, 
for without it there was no means which the rulers could use 
that would compel the people to obey. There was no standing 
army, no hereditary gifts, no political organization, which 
would hold the people subject to authority. 

There was, however, a system of religion, even among the 
wild tribes, which held them together and constituted a brother- 
hood among them which was as strong as that which exists 
among the* secret societies of to-day. The signs of this 
brotherhood they bore upon their persons or painted upon 
their houses, and sometimes placed upon the soil. These 
served as a bond of union and had the effect of bringing to- 
gether all who have the same totem to a common defense. A 
good illustration of this is found among the Iroquois, who 
were all united in a confederacy and became so strong that 
they became a terror, not only to the Hurons, but all the tribes 
situated along Lake Erie and the Ohio River. Other tribes 
had the same system, but they were divided and had i\o con- 
federacy and made no common cause. It is supposed, how- 
ever, that they were preceded by tribes which were more 
thoroughly organized and had perhaps a stronger system of 
religion. As evidence of this we may refer to such great 
orttgios as the Serpent Mound, and such earthworks as are 
lo\ind in the state of Ohiv>. These show that the people were 
thoroughly organized and were under the iofiueoce of kings 
M\\\ piicsis 01 ohicts and medicine men, who led them to erect 
these great caithworks which proved a source of defense. 



SUPERSTITION A MEANS OF DEFENSE. 4Q 

Beacon fires were frequently lighted on the walls of the 
defensive enclosures, and many elevated points within village 
enclosures were also used for the purpose of signaling distant 
places, so that we cannot confine the signal system to mounds 
or to isolated stations, though as a general rule the signal sys- 
tem was outside and supplementary to the village enclosure. 

We would refer here to the fact that in the ancient fortifica- 
tion at Bournevillc, O., there was a rocky summit which over- 
looked a great valley below, on which traces of beacon fires 
have been discovered, and that upon the walls of the enclosure 
at VoTi Ancient traces of fire have also been discovered. 

On the other hand there are many villages where the loca- 
tion of some lofty point near by would give great opportunity 
torexchangingsignalseitherbyfireor smoke for great distances. 
Many such points are seen in different parts of the country. 

Messrs Squiers and Davis mention the fact that between 
Chillicothe and Columbus, in Ohio, not far from twenty of 
these points can be selected, the stations so placed in reference 
to each other that it is believed that signals of fire might be 
transmitted in a few minutes. 

On a hill opposite Chillicothe, nearly 6oo feet in height, the 
loftiest in the entire region, one of these signal mounds is 
placed. A fire built upon this would be distinctly visible for 
fifteen or twenty miles up, and an equal distance down the val- 
ley of the Scioto, including in its range the Circleville works, 
tv\enty miles distant, as also for a long way up the broad val- 
leys of the two Paint Creeks, both of which abound in the 
remains of ancient villages. In the map of the Miami valley 
a similar position may be observed, and similar mounds occur 
along the Wabash, the Illinois, and the upper Mississippi, show- 
ing how extensive this signal system was, at the same time 
showing how intimately connected it was with village resi- 
dence. 

Rev, J. T. McLean has traced a line of signal mbunds from 
Fort Ancient to the Miami River, and the writer has discovered 
that the great Miami Mound was so placed that signal fires 
could be seen for many miles up the Miami River in both 
directions, and connected the villages scattered along the dif- 
ferent rivers to the east with others far to the west. He has 
also traced signal stations scattered along the bluffs of the 
Mississippi River from the city of St. Paul to St. Louis, and 
found that there were sometimes double and triple lines which 
connected these with others in the interior and that every high 
point was furnished with signal stations. Others have traced 
a similar system extending up the Missouri River, so that we 
may conclude that there was a network of these stations on 
which beacon fires could be lighted all over the Mississippi 
valley; though it is probable that they were used by different 
tribes, and that each tribe and each confederacy resorted to 
the same means for defense. 




THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



:r clas! 



Along with these signal stations there was another 
of ancient defenses, — a class which consisted of a combinatioD 
of signal stations and fortified enclosures. There were several 
classes of enclosures. We shall only mention three varieties: 

( I ) The enclosures which were used by the warlike tribes, 
which were situated along the chain of the Great LaWes, 
through the slate of Ohio into New York Slate. These have 
been described by various explorers and arch«eologists Mr, 
E. G. Squiers has described those in the state of New York; 
Col. Charles Whittelsey has described those along the northern 
part of the state of Ohio, at Conneaut, Ashtabula, PaJnesville, 
and on the Sandusky River. The writer has visited the same 
localities and can testify to the corrcctncis of the statements. 
Dr. Hill of Ashland, Ohio, has discovered forts within sight of 




one another, through the whole lengin of Cuyahoga River, 
situated on tongues of land which would give distant views. 

(.') There was a class of hill lorls scattered over the 
region on cither side of the Ohio River, which were probably 
occupied by diffetrnt tribes; some of them were undoubtedly 
places o( last resort for the people who dwelt in the villages, 
and served as defense* (or the numerous villages scattered 
along the valleys There were hill forts also as far south as 
Tennessee and Kentucky. Some of them were constr-ucted 
»ut of stone, others had earth walls; but all were furnished 
with signal stations, as well as with w»lls and gateways. 

*1* There were fortified enclosures along the Cumberland 
and Tennessee Rivers which were occupied by the Stone Grave 
people. They were furnished with extensive earth walls and 



SUPERSTITION A MEANS OF DEFENSE, 51 

possibly stockades were erected. The signal station was con- 
nected with them, bui the burial places were within tht en- 
closures. Stone furls were found also in the Gulf States, sume 
of them upon ihc mountains. 

The next mtthod of defense was that secured by the 
erection of timber stockades, generally upon the hill tops. 
This was the method employed by the Iroquois, as well as by 
the various tribes situated along the Atlantic coast, Champlain 
found one of these stockade forts near the banks of the St. 
Lawrence, and had his first encounter with the Iroquois near it. 
Another stockade fort was situated on the southern part of 
Lake Champlain, near Ticonderoga, Here the Indians gath- 
ered 'with their boats constructed out of bark, but the French 
bad boats of a superior style; the Indians were frightened at 
the discharge of fire arms and so were defeated. There were 
many such forts scattered through the state of New York. 
Champlain found the Iroquois entrenched in such a stockade 
fort at Onondaga. This fort was provided with platforms on 
the inside, on which the defenders stood. There was a stream 
of water on the outside which protected the fort from fire, and 
also repulsed the assailants. Champlain constructed an ele- 
vated platform, resembling those common in medieval times, 
and placed men armed with cross bows and (ire arms on the 
platform, and was thus able to dislodge the Indians. Stock- 
ade forts like this were found by Cartier at Hochelaga, near 
Mantreal. It was near one of these stockade enclosures^ at 
Mouv-illa that De Soto experienced his first defeat. 

The villages in Florida were surrounded by stockades. The 
houses were constructed in about the same way; the timbers 
were set upright, making a circle, and were covered with a 
conical roof, which was thatched. There were, however, vil- 
lages along the Atlantic coast and ir New England which had 
no stockades. 

The picturegivenon the following page represents thepeople 
which Verazzano, the early navigatoi, found dwelling on the 
coast of New England. There is no stockade in sight, hut 
the people were dwelling under booths, surrounded by wild 
animals. There are other pictures of the same region, which 
represent the stockade as numerous. In the picture we see the 
various habits of these natives and their costumes; we also see 
the kind of boats with which they navigated the sea. Veraz7,ano 
is supposed to have sailed along the south side of Long Island 
and may have reached Cape Cod, and possibly Newfoundland 
and the islands, for Basque vessels may be seen in the picture. 
The picture is interesting because it is the first view gained of 
(his section. 

Another method of defense was by means of pyramids, 

ich were terraced upon the sides and had a platform on the 

This was a plan adopted by the tribes in the Gulf States 

all the civilized tribes of Mexico and Central America. 



S3 THE AMERICAN ANTiaUARIAN. 

The pyramids at Cahokia marked the site opposite St. Louis 
of a large Indian village, but there was no fort ar.d no wall 
around the village. The only defense was found in the pyra- 
mids, on which the people might gather and repel the attack 
of any Invading foe. 

There were similar pyramids scattered throuf^h the Gulf 
States, and it seems probable that they marked the sites {>f 
ancient villages. The pyramids combined a lookout siaiion. 
with a safe dwelling place, and enabled the ruling clashes to 
live separate from the common people. In this respect ihe 
villages resembled the villages of Centra! America. 

It is to be noticed that terraced pyramids were about the 
only defenses that the civilized tribes possessed. At least very 



rAI^TE INCOCHITA. 




VKUZANOS PICTURE OK THE NFW ENGI.AN1> COAST. 

few walled towns have been discovered, but nearly ail the 
cities wiTf marked by groupsof pyramids on which the palaces 
were erected. The best illustratinn of the advantages secured 
by a terraced pyramid is found among the Pueblos of the far 
\Vest. In Mexico and Central .Xmciica the pyramids were 
constructed out of stone. 

!!. The most interesting method of defense was that which 
came from the combination of religious symbols and mechanical 
contrivances. This has not been lully appreciated, but the 
more out- studies the prehistoric works, the more examples he 
will Knd. .-\ good illustration of this may be seen at Fort 
.Ancient, Ohio. 



SUPERSTITION A MEANS OF DEFENSE. 



H 



carr 



AUietl to this custom of using scrpeni flsures in connection 
ith the forts and villages, is the custom which prevails on the 
Northwest coast. Here the tribes arc all related to one an- 
other and are generally at peace; and yet each village is Inde- 
pendent of every other vilNige. and is controlled by some chief, 
who rules in the name of some great supernatural divinity; the 
emblem of this divinity is placed in front of the houses, or 
" :d upon the poles, and is sometimes painted upon the 
inoes. This tact has been a source of protection to the vil- 
;es for generations. 

The figure of some animal or bird or fabulous creature is 
er placed upon ihe front of the houses or carved on the 
item poles, and is seen and feared by all tho^e who approach 
the village. It serves the same purpose as did the Great Ser- 



ift^ 




^^^ 


M 




z^—~ 



IL, ...,.....,„„,...„„ 
[^de of stone, which farmed the balustrades of the stairway 
VChichen-Ilza. and as do the dragon figures which are still 
■en placed over the pagodas and temples of China. In fact. 
K may compare all these figures to the celebrated lions which 
Eire placed over the gateways at Mycenie. and the immen'e 
ftman-headcd bulls which were placed in the palaces at 
l^nevah and Habjion. and the sphinxes which guarded the ap- 
proach to the pyramids of Egypt. There are also peculiar 
figures to lie seen carved upon posts in front of the houses in 
Polynesia, and upon the rocks nuar the stone houses of the 
Easier Islands. These may be supposed to have served the 
same purpose as the carved and sculptured figures referred to 
above. They were not fortifications, for they did nut present 
any physical or material b.irner. but there was back of these 
figures a religious intluence which served as a protection to 
tbe houses. 



IJ 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

On iHl- Northwest coast there were many other devi 
which served to impress the people with a sense of fear. Thff 
figures which were carved upon th: totem poles were oflin so 
fierce and ghoulish in their attitudes and combinations that 
they are calculated to frighten anyone who looked upon them; 
but the people here were accustomed to make masks which 
were even more frightful, and to wear these in their dances and 
religious ceremonies. These made known the divinity or 
manitou which was supposed to preside over the village, and 
served as a protection to all who dwelt in the village. There 
w«s a vast system of mythology which prevailed among the 
people which increased their superstition. Among the myths 
the most remarkable were those which told of the d.ingerous 
exploits of certain birds and animals which were supposed to 
haunt the air and the sea and the land. The most inter- 
esting one of tht'se is called Ho Xhok, This fabulous bird has_ 





an immensely long beak and lives on the brains of men, AS| 

other one is called " Hamatsa," a cannibal, who instills into 
others the desire of eating human flesh, and devouri whom-so- 
cver he can lay hi^ hands upon. AnolheJ monster is a canni- 
bal living on the mountains and is always in pursuit of man. 
Red smoke arises from his house. He has a female slave who 
procures food for him by catching men and gathering corpses; 
near the door of his house sits his slave, the Raven, who eats 
the eyes of the people whom his master has devoured These 
fabulous creatures are often represented carved in wood and 
placed over the graves or in front of the houses, and form 
prominent objects in the villages. The double-headed serpent 
also is used as a totem, as well as a symbol of oflice and 
of power. It owes its power to a superstition which existed 
among the people- 

These superstitions prevailed so extensively through the 
itire region, that they had the effect to keep the people who 




r 



SUPERSTITION A MEANS OF" DEFENSE. 



55 



are scattered about, at peace with one another. The dances 
are religious ceremonies, and in them the masks are worn 
which represent deer and eagles and birds and human faces 
and wild animals in the most grotesque and hideous manner. 
The masks- are often-times 
double, so that faces which 
represent birds will open and 
other faces are to be seen that 
are hideous, the glaring eyes 
and open mouth and serried 
teeth of these hidden faces be- 
ing calculated to inspire all who 
look at them with fear, 

Another device is sometimes 
seen painted on the front of 
houses, which reminds us of 
one which was used as a cuat of 
arms un the coast of Sumatra 
on the opposite side of the 
Pacific ocean. It consists of a 
double headed serpent, whose 
body rcstsoverthedoor. Above 
the serpent are two birds re- 
sembling eagles; below are two 
Above, over the door, are two 




other birds resembling 



human faces and a bird standing upon 
arms, as described by Mr. Henry O. Forbes, 
shield with double supporters on 
each side; a tiger, rampant, bearing 
on its back a snake, defiant, uphold- 
ing a shield in whose center the most 
prominent figure is a sunflower, with 
two deer, one on each fide; above 
the ornament is a half moon; the 
figures below the shield are two tri 
angles, balanced on top of one an- ; 
other." • 

This emblazoned board and its ' 
caived surroundings was hid away in 
a little ionc hamlet, among a half 
savage and pagen people. It was a 
surprise to the one who discovered ; 
it, but it is more surprising that i 
should so much resemble the figure 
painted over the doorways of the 
native tribes on the Northwest coast. staircase in peru 

Whether these resemblances were the result of contact, or 
parallel development, is a question, but this at least is true: 

> W»D«irin(.,'' iy UcBir O, Forhc. No* Yoik: Hliper Brai.; iBSj. 





i 



5* THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the serpent and the tiger ser\ed as an emblem on the coast of 
Asia, as did the serpent, the raven, the eagle, and other 
creatures on the coast of America. 

Another example of this method ■»£ defense was found in 
the massive serpents which formed the balustrade to the stair- 
way at Chichen-Itza. Here the n:on>trous head projects out 
eight feet beyond the foot of the 5tairway, and its open jaws 
and glaring eyes are so hideous as to impress anyone, and to the 
superstitious must have been exceedin^i^ly terrifying. . These 
figures were perhaps designed more tor L«rnaments than tor 
defense, but they may have served the same purpose as did the 
Lion Gateway at Mycenae, an.i the f:ho;;;i<h looking idol which 
was placed over the gateway t«» the temple at the City of 
Mexico, both of which had the effect :-• ke-p the sacred places 
from the intrusion ot profane feet. 

V. There remains to be considered another method of de- 
fence and one that was more effective than any other. It con- 
sisted in surrounding a city, and m some cases .m entire country, 
with a strc^ng. high wail, and then plac :•:: at the gateways and 
the passes high towers, which were L:i:^r icd by troops, and pro- 
tected the ciiy and the country from iina<i.Mi In may cases 
there were narrow stairways which \vd ui> to the citadels, and 
these were guarded by troops. The c'::> re])resent these de- 
fenses, which were common in Pen:. One »>i them represents 
the stairuay at Pisac, the other the i rtineii pas< at Pisac. 

Mr. K. G. S(juier says of these: ' \\'here\ tr it was possible 
for a bold climber to clamber up, there the Incas built up lofty 
walls of stone, so as to leave neither f. uii^tiM nor stone for an 
assailant. In one case the ascent on the -;:r of the town is by 
a stairway, partly cut in the rock and pa:^\- composed of large 
stones, which winds along the face of the r«)cky escarpment; 
hangs over dizzy precipices; twines aiouiui bastions of rock, on 
every one of which are towers for soldiers, with their magazines 
of stones ready to be hurled down on an adxancing assailant. 
We find every projection or escarpment ot ruck crowned with 
towers, generally round, with openin^^s for looking out through 
which weapons might be discharged and si«>nes hurled. P2very 
avenue of ascent is closed. Kvery commanding; and strategic 
point IS fortified. Every peak is protected 1;\ a maize of works 
which almost baffle description." 

These towers, stairways and mountain passes resemble those 
which still exist in the midst of the '^^'\d rt^^lons of Mashona- 
lanrl, which are very mysterious, because no one knows at 
what time or by what nation they were erected. 



[ILLUSTRATED BOOKS FOR THE HOLIDAYS. 

OURTSHiP OF Miles Standish, By H. W. Longfellow. Illui- 
trattonsby Howard Chantjler Christy. Indianapolis: Bobbs' 
Merrill & Co. 

Several books have been published by various firms in New 
York, Boston and Western cities, which are admirable for their 
illustrations. Some of these relate to Amorican subjects and 
others to the more ancient topics. One of these is published 
bv Bobbs-Mcrrill & Co.. Indianapolis, and represents the court- 
ship of Miles Standish. 

This is a very beautiful book and one which will undoubtedly 
meet with a great sale. It is one of the few books in which 
colors have been used and proved entirely satisfactory. The 
engravings arc suggestive of the scenes which are described 
by the famous writer. The costumes and furniture and general 
make up are old-fashioned, and carry us back to the early days 
of New England. Some of the faces are suggestive of the 
period, though others have a modern aspect that might be 
taken as representing the society of the present day. 

The best picture, or at least the one most suggestive of the 
period, is one that represents the Indian skulking through the 
forest. The book as a work of art reflects great credit on 
the publishers. It is certainly remarkable that a Western firm 
recently established should get out a book, which in many 
respects surpasses any that has been published by Eastern 
houses. The editor takes pleasure in commending the volume 
to the readers. 

The Art of the Pitti Palace. By Julia DeWolf Addison, 
Illustraled. Boston: L. C. Page & Co. 

Another book has been published by L. C. Page. Boston, 
which describes the specimens of art which are found in the 
Pitti Palace in Rome. The paintings which are in the Pitti 
Palace are more numerous and more varied than in any other 
collection, and this fact of itself is a great recommendation for 
the book which treats of it. There are in the palace several 
halls: one called the Hall ot Venus; another, the Hall of 
Mars, and the Halls of Jupiter, Saturn, and the Iliad; all of 
whi^h are full of noted paintings. Besides these we have some 
of the early pictures of Fra Angelico in the royal apart- 
ments, and statues ot Cain and Abel by Duprc. 

There are in the book thirty-eight fnll page plates, or en- 
gravings, all of which represent the paintings very correctly, 
except that the colors are not brought out. The book con- 
tains a description of the origin and growth of the collection, 



k 



M 



58 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



and given a sketch of each artist and describes each of the 
pictures. It is a book which anyone who has a taste for art 
will find satisfaction in taking up and reading from time to 
time, for the book grows upon one and will bear continued 
study. The frontispiece represents one of Raphael's paintings, 
a portrait of the same beautiful model which is presented ia 
the Sistine Madonna, evidently a Roman woman of noble 
blood. There is something about the face that tells that some- 
thing of the soul and heart of the master went into it, and still 
lives on the canvas. 

Historic Buildings as Seen and Described by Famous 
Writers. Edited by Ksthcr Singleton. New York: Dodd, 
Mead Si Co. 

A third book is "Historic Buildings as Seen and Described 
by Famous Writers," published by Dodd. Mead & Co., New 
York, and edited by Esther Singleton. The pictures in this 
book represent temples and palaces in India, in Italy, in 
France, in Spain, in Germany, and in England. There are no 
palaces in America. As a result this continent is not repre- 
sented. 

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Palestine, the Coli- 
seum at Rome, and the Statue of Buddha in Japan are familiar, 
but the majority of the other buildings, with the exception of 
the Luxemburg Palace and Haddon Hall, England, are some- 
what unfamiliar; at least thty are not so common as to seem 
to the reader to be commonplace. Kinnilworlh Castle is 
familiar, but the picture is a good one. and is interesting be- 
cause of its associatLons. The Fountain of the Old Seraglio 
in Turkey is not so welt known. The tower in Portugal, and 
the alcazar of Seville, Spain, can well be put beside the Holy 
House at Serretto, Italy, and the fortress and palace of 
Gwalior, India; in fact there is as much variety to the styles of 
architecture and to the scenes with which they are surrounded 
that any reader will find much delight in looking at the pictures. 

There is a great difference in the dates of these buildings, 
as well as in the styles. The Coliseum, perhaps, is the oldest; 
the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is next to it; the Leaning 
Towerof Italy follows. This may be associated with the Castle 
of St, Angclo, Italy. Salisbury Cathedral followed the great 
revival in Gothic architecture; it is the most beautiful and per- 
fect cathedral in England, 

We may say. in examining the plates, that the use for which 
a building was erected had great influence over the style of its 
architecture, and yet there are fortresses in India which aeem 
like palaces, and palaces in Italy which seem like forts. The 
situation confirms the impression as well as the stye of archi- 
tecture. The golden temple of the Sikhs in India is situated 
in the midst of the water, and seems like a great bath-house;. 



ILLUSTRATED BOOKS FOR THE HOLIDAYS. 



S* 



but the palace of the pope in Italy looks like a fortresi. 
These are exceptions, for the Castle of St. Angelo, Italy, is 
every inch a castle, and the cathedral at Rheims is a cathedral' 
and nothing else. 

One who is interested at all in architecture will find this 
book of great interest and value, One can read it with more 
ease and with more leisure than he can undertake to travel tO' 
these countries and examine the original buildings. The en- 
gravings are interesting in themselves, aside from the book. 

An English Village; a new edition of "A Wild Life in a^ 
Southern Country. By Richard Jefferies. Introduction by 
Hamilton W, Mabic. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. 

Another book, entitled "An English Viilage,"a new editioni 
of "Wild Life in a Southern Country." is by Richard Jeffreys. 
This is perhaps the most charming of all, not because of itK 
art or its architecture, but because of its homely character, and 
because it brings us near to Nature's heart. It contain pen 
pictures of native and rural life, made in Wiltshire. England, 
by Clifton Johnson. 

BOOKS ON EARLY AMERICAN SCENES. 

Two books have been issued by A. C. McClurg during 1903: 
on early American history. One entitled " A Short History 
of Mexico." by Arthur H. Noll, describes the appearance of 
the City of Mexico as it was before the time of the Conquest, 
and at the same time identifies some of the same features a» 
having survived the Conquest. The book is not as interesting 
as it is instructive, for the original Mexican names as given 
somewhat obstruct the narrative; but the carefulness with which- 
it is written helps the reader to understand what changes occur- 
red at the lime of the Conquest. It contains the history of 
Mexico in a very small compass and brings the subject up to- 
date. 

The other book, entitled " Historic Scenes on the Ohio," 
was written apparently in the field, or rather beside the river. 
It is a description of a skiff voyage taken by the author, a,nd 
contains an account of the people the party met on their voy- 
age. One who is not familiar with the country might form the 
impression from reading the book that people who dwelt upon 
the Ohio River were very outlandish in their ways and style of 
speech, but the Impression is changed if one considers that 
they are only what are called the "river rats." and neither re- 
present the heroes who have made the river celebrated for their 
exploits, nor the present citizens who have made their home: 
upon its beautiful banks, and Riled the valleys with many great 
cities and changed it from the wild state to the present condi- 
tion. The book contains a number of allusions to the historic 



J 



6o THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 

events which occurred on the banks of the river, and a descrip* 
tion of a few historic works, though some of the most import* 
ant are left out. 

The first book contains no illustrations, but is valuable for 
the many facts which it contains. The last book is well illus- 
trated and is entertaining and somewhat amusing. 



•4-f" 



THE PRESERVATION OF THE MONUMENTS. 

The prehistoric works of this continent are at present in a 
shape which renders it absolutely necessary that some means 
should be devised very soon for their preservation, or we shall 
be led to lament over their disappearance and complete de- 
struction which has been brought upon them. It is mortifying 
and somewhat discouraging to those who have made a study 
of these interesting works to know that vandal hands are busy 
at work in various localities in tearing down and destroying the 
most interesting and valuable of these ancient monuments, for 
the sake of getting the few relics which m^y be hidden beneath 
them. It may be that a collector will secure enough to pay his 
expenses into the ground, but the prospect that some money 
can be made is so delusive, that hundreds of persons make 
superhuman exertions to get at the spoils and make merchan- 
dise of the relics which may be found. The collector, who does 
this work may lay the flattering unction to his covetous soul, 
that he is a wonderfully scientific man and a great archaeologist; 
but the heart of men is very deceitful and bent upon evil. 
They arc to be compared to the managers of theatres, who 
grow reckless, betray the patronage of people who think 
no evil, and who impose upon a generous public, their deceit- 
ful subterfnq^es, until some terrible calamity comes. The reck- 
lessness which follows the covetous spirit is a source of 
destructions to everything that is sacred and good. If there 
is any way by which law can be enforced, and the precious 
things which have been given to us as an inheritance can be 
preserved, it is to be hoped that that way will soon be pointed 
out, and an end be put to this wholesale destruction of the 
monuments. 



The Archaeological Society of Wisconsin has been active 
during the past few years in exploring the few remaining 
eflfigies which are to be found upon the soil. And notwith- 
standing the refusal of legislature to enact any law for their 
protection, the members of the society are still at work in 
creating a sentiment in favor of this measure. The danger 
which threatens the destruction of these interesting eflligies 
does not come from the collectors, for most collectors realize 
that relics are not found in the effigies, but it comes from the 



PRESERVATION OF THE MONUMENTS. 6t 

carelessness and want of appreciation of the persons on whose 
land the effigies are placed. 

It was a surprise to the Editor, a few years ago. while at- 
tending the Librarians Association of the United States, in an 
excursion to the beautiful city on the four lakes, to find that 
out of the hundreds of effigies which formerly adorned the 
hills, upon every side, not a half dozen had been left intact, 
and these were hardly perceptible. Ciliicns, who own farms, 
and^will allow driveways, roadways and public walks to be laid 
out over their farms, seem to be unaware that the effigies which 
formerly were scattered over their land were of any import- 
ance, and so have allowed them to be plowed down. 



BDlTORlAb NOTES. 



|| 

^^^ Herbert Spencer, the celebrated English author, died re- 
cently, aged 83. 

W. E. H. Lccky, the author of "Medieval Europe, died 
October 22, 1903, aged 65. 

Prof. Theordore Momsen died recently, aged 86. He was 
Professor of History in Berlin from 1858 to I903. Momson's 
" Roman Histoiy " is known to all scholars. His greatest work 
was " Corpus Inscriptionum Latinorum." 

Modern CLii-r-DwELLEKS. — There are whole communities 
in France whose only habitations are hollowed out in the 
rocky hill sides, and whose entire business life is carried on in 
caves. 

Egypt can show the biggest engineering works in the world. 
The Pyramid of Gizeh contains 7,000,000 tons of stone; the 
irrigating reservoir at Lake Moerii hold 11,800,000,000 cubic 
metres of water; the columns of a temple at Carnac, 12 feet 
in diameter and 60 feet in length, were floated down the Nile 
and were raised into their place; the statue of Ramses IL 
weighed 887 tons, but they were raised to their place by the 
use of wedges and levers, and ropes and pulleys. 

Obsidian relics are generally found in the Yellowstone 
region, or in Mexico, but a large number of obsidian arrow 
points have been found in Wisconsin, and are now in the 
various cabinets. A description of them will be found in the 
Wisconsin Archieologist (July. 1903), written by Mr. P. V. 
Lawson. The Wisconsin Archaeological Society is doing a 
good work in the way of plotting and describing the few re- 
maining effigies found in that state. 

RECENT DISCOVERIES. 

A recent discovery at Pompeii: a statue in bronze, with the 
right arm missing, the representation of masculine beauty; one 
of the most beautiful statues of the first epoch. The attitude 
s noble, profile pure, the aspect serious. 



i 



«2 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

A remarkable discovery in Babylonia has been made. It 
consists of a school house of seven rooms and all its equip- 
ments, dating back to the time of Hammurabi, with tablets; 
also hymns in the Sumerian languages, meterological tests, 
lists of words, nautical problems, contracts; all of the texts 
were signed with the name of Hammurabi. Per^ Scheil, who 
ihas translated the laws of Hammurabi and who belongs to the 
French Archaeological Institute of Cairo, is responsible for the 
genuineness of the discovery. 

The annual apportionment to the Boston Museum of Fine 
Arts of objects recently exhumed under the auspices of the 
Egypt Exploration Fund, consists of rare specimens of primi- 
tive Egyptian art, including pots, stone palettes, gUzea por- 
celain of the first dynasty, tiny figures from Abydos, alabaster 
bowls of the fourth dynasty, and ba<alt ware from Edfou. 

An unusual number of literary treasures have been ex- 
'humed in the past few months. Be^^ides the celebrated laws 
•of Hammurabi we have the Ode of Timotheus; the Savings of 
our Lord; a dream of Sophocles, called ** Achaian Syllogy"; 
a part of two odes by Pindar; eight books of Livy that were 
ost; a part of Medea of Nophoron; also certain Egyptian let- 
ters of peasants written in Greek of the third century, throw- 
ing much light on the agriculture of the Nile, and another 
collection of the Sayings of Jesus. 

BOOK REVIEWS. 



Indians of the Painted Desert Region. By George Wharton James. 
New York: Little, Brown Co. Pp. 264. Price, §2. 

The Indians who dwelt upon the great plateau are supposed to belong 
to the same stock as the Indians who formerly dwelt in the Mississippi val- 
ley, though they present a very different appearance and dress in a very 
diHereni way. and build very different houses. Their religious customs, 
their social organization and form of government are also peculiar to them- 
selves, and yet well adapted 10 the circumstances with which they pre sur- 
rounded. Peet's book upon the Cliff- Dwellers, which was published in 1899, 
contains a description of them and their mode of life, though it was con- 
fined to the prehistoric and early conditions. This book of Mr. James is 
written by one who became familiar with the present condition of the 
descendants of the Cliff-Uwcllers, and he is able to give a very graphic 
description of the peoplt- whom we now call the Pueblos, from close ob- 
servation and experience. 

The term "Indians of the Painted Desert Region" is more general 
than the term " Pueblo," for it includes the Navajos, who dwelt in the 
mountains, as well as the Hopis and Zunis. who dwell on the mesa; and also 
gives the author the opportunity of describing the other tribes which are 
scattered through the >ame general region, such as the Wallapais and the 
Havasupais. There is no one living at present who is better qualified to 
give a general description of all these tribes than the author. The late 
Major Powell traversed the region and was acquainted with all the tribes, 
but he never wrote a book upon them. Many different authors have 
described the region and the people. Among these we may mention the 
names of General Simpson, Mr. L. H. Morgan. Major J. W. Powell, J. 
Walter Fewkes, Dr Washington Matthews, F. G. Hodge, F. H. Gushing, 
A. F. Bandelier, C. F, Lummis, and many others. 




BOOK REVIEWS. 65 

rhere is no class of aborigines who have secured more atlentiOD from 
ine American public than these very tribes, and yel their origin in involved 
in obscurity, and their relation 10 other tribes and slocks remain* uncertain. 
The book on the Chff-UweUers by the Editor of The American Anti- 
quarian covers the same field in a general way. though the Clifi-Uwelkrs 
tbemselvei have entirely disappeared, and no one knows what their tale 
was to a cenaJDty. but the supposition is thai they were driven from th«ir 
(troBgholds and found refuge among the Pueblos further south, It is to the 
air continent, with its high mesas, its deep valleys, its high precipices and 
many-colored rocks, thai the name of "Fainted Desert' has been given, 
and it is an appropnaie name, for while it is a desert, the rocks have so 
many and varied colors that they seem to be pamled; and yet ibe general 
iiBpression is that it is a dcieit, which is sometimes parched and sun- 
burned and silent, and again a waste and howling wilderness. The scenery 
IS wonderfully diversified, as the streams which drain the desert have in 
the course of ages plowed iheir way through the rocks, wearing their chan- 
Mis deeper and deeper, so that now one in crossing the desert has to go 
down into ihcse deep valleys and climb up the high mesas, and is always 
surrounded by a different scene. The Grand Cailon runs across ils norih- 
ern borders. The Colorado River, which drains it, hai many tributaries. 
The great mountains, extinct volcano's, wide and desolate mesas, valleys 
fillea with coltonwoods. vast sand wastes, regions swept by storms, filled 
with caves. The inhabilants scattered here and there; some of them in the 
valley, but the majority of them still making their home on the mesai; all 
of tbem isolated from Ihe rest of the world. 

Mr. James, the author of this book, it wel.qua lified for his task, inas- 
much as he has spent weeks and months in traversmg the region, His ad' 
ventures were numeraus and his descriptions are graphic and interesting, ■ 
and they are in greal contrast to those which have been ftiroished by Mr. 
C F. Lummis. who makes up in exclamation points for what he lacks in 
real descriptive powers. 

The storms which sweep this region are often fierce, and come up so 
suddenly that no one can escape their force. The soil is barren, and yel 
the people are so industrious that they reap from it crops which support 
their large families. It is the anxiety for crops and the sense of dependance 
upon the clouds for rain, that the numerous religious ceremonies are con- 
ducted by the people. 

The moat interesting thing is the Snake Dance which is so well known. 
It is mpposed that the snakes act as intermediaries to take the prayers that 
b^r children on the earth have uttered for corn and grain. The spider 
woman is also asked 10 weave the clouds, for without them no rain can 
descend. The lightning symbol of the antelope: the shaking of the rallies, 
which sounds like falling rain; the use of the whiizer lo produce the sound 
of the coming sloim; tnese, and other similar things, show the intimate 
association with Ihe rain and its making. The decorations of the dancers 
illustrates the same point, for they are coveted with symbols of lightning. 
The prayers of the people indicate the same. A translation of one of Ihese. 
bas bean given by Dr. Fewkes, as follows: 

" Hasten clouds from the four world quarters. 

"Com; snow in plenty that water may be abundant when summer 

"Come ice and cover the fields ihal after planting they may yield 
abundantly. 

■■ Let all hearts be glad." 

The use of corn meal, and prayers for corn, have come to have an im- 
portant place in this ceremony. 

In strong contrast to the so-called Puehlo tribes are the Navajos. Dr. 
Washington Matthews has written concerning these. His books on the 
Navajos may be compared to those oE Mr. Cusning on the Zunis, but they 
are more accurate and less poetical. Wonderful sont;i, full of poetic- 
tin>»ry, suitable tor every conceivable occasion; songs which have been 
banded down for generations prevail among this people. Many of them 



'^ THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

have been secured and written out and published, both by the Bureau of 
Ethnology and various books; so that everyone interested in aboriginal 
poetry can find enough to admire in these wonderful songs. The art of 
the Navajos is also worthy of study. This art is mainly exhibited fn the 
sand paintings and in the personal decorations, and is closely connected 
with the religious symbolism which has been handed down (or generations. 
The Navajo is known as a blanket- weaver, but as a song-maker he is more 
worthy of admiration. It is perfectly wonderful that an unlettered people 
'could put together such a mass of imaginative literature which is full of 
imagery drawn from the many colored mountains and the skies and v.irious 
objects of nature, and preserved in the sand paintings and songs which 
constitute the chief elements of their religious ceremonies. 

Among the ancient people, religion was perpetuated by song and the 
dance, as well as by the ceremonies. The Greeks changed this to poetry and 
to tragedies V6 rtptescni their religious thoughts or sentiments. 1 his peo- 
ple, situated A Ur off amid the mountains, without the art of writing, have 
preserved legehds and songs which are as poetical and as beautiful as any 
of those which have come down to us from the ancient people of the East. 
They are not confined to measures and do not rhyme. Tnere is little of 
Vhat may be called history or even tragedy in them, and yet they celebrate 
deliverance from captivity and strange adventures, along with the wonder- 
ful exploits which, through the assistance of supernatural beings, captives 
nave been able to accomplish. The divinities dwell upon the mountains 
and amid the clouds, and yet others dwell in the valleys and are hidden in 
the caves, but everything is alive. The natural and supernatural are 
mingled together. The literature of the Navajos is certainly worthy of 
Study. The Editor of this Magaziue has referred to it in a book in prepa- 
ration on " Myths and Symbols." which will conuin descriptions of these 
Si^ngs and ceremonies. 

It is certainly fortunate that so many intelligent persons have made a 
^tudy of these Indians of the region, and that these songs and ceremonies 
have been so well described. If this work could have l>een done among 
the tribes which formerly dwelt in the Mississippi vallev. we should have a 
different ulea ot them, than has hitherto pre\'ailed. The Indians of this 
vallev were perhaps more warlike than cither the Pueblos or Navajos, but 
thev were less warlike than the Apaches. Comanches and other tribes, and 
possessed a »:reater amount of nivthoIos:y. They are as worthy of admira- 
tion m many respects, notwithstandm^: the atrocities which they committed. 
The wroncs inr:'c:evi upon them were much more aggravating than any 
visuevi upon the Indians ot the Tainted Pesert. This is owing more to the 
fact that the:r and was covetevi bv the whites: they were followed so 
c!ose;v that res:s:ence was mevitab.e. The tribes ot the Northwest are 
also rapui^ vi;>,\ppear;n»: V«: ic the vieser: land there arc barriers of 
climate, so., .ico. si:ua::or.. which iv.a\ tor a ::me protect the people from 
the tnoursior.s ot the wh::es. and the c'.a:n:s of humanitv should assert 
the:".xe'\fs -v. reterence to a"., the t:hes> It r.*. a v be that the admiration 
t^n the ar: the :ndustr\. and the pv>«tr\, wh;ch are graduallv becoming 
kno*n t,' the pev^p.e. •i".. prove, rot on,^ a rueaas ot defense, but an in- 
cest.* e to e-^ort • hch w ;, :e>u'.: r. the v.r: —ove vea: of these isolated tribes. 



V\^'\t:!.N I'^ws :\ v^'biFFvy. B\ Kiitus l^ Ktchanison. New York: 



'^ ■» * M > •,. •■ 



V. - 



atura! V ta'te> up th s Soo* w::h jrea: expectations, for the title 
aad tie ::an:e o: the a-thor eat^ra'. \ leads o=e to expect virid descrip- 
t-ccs. !:.*: -rerf'.v c: the sce*e:i hit the arc ezt ar.is aad rauis« which ar« 
kric«2: t..'' he :,?<t*d :l the Faroes .ocal^f.e*. rhe pcblahers bav^ f«r- 
ci*hevi r::a::>i m:.:a^ e ?iate* wh ch hrajc h<:\*re the e^e the riii^ol the 
tec:?:?*, r^e t?-j=r.e at Stratctk also the TesiSe ot ApoLLo a: TberoKML, 
a theatre at Er<via,ira3. aad the so cal.e%i Coecori a rer::r".e at Gtrgettdare 
Xt^ea. t^ iescT-jcoos* WweTer. are all tvV rrtet. TiieT have reference to 



BOOK REVIEWS. 



«7 



Delphi, the Sancluiry '«( Greece, which was the seat of the oracles. 
-Olympia lies in a charming valley, but at Delphi the awful oracle spoke the 
doom of men and states. The gamesi were prominent it Olympia. but 
Teligion was paramount at Delphi. The yield of statues and excavations 
includes the bronze charioteer and whole museums full of statuary of the 
utmost Importance. The oracle of Dodona comes next. The Vale of 
Tempe, an acropolis, which aa be teen from a distance,~line old Hellenic 
— ""' A ride across a range of hills, and thi». the oldest oracle ol Greece, 
before Delphi, is seen. Tht; temples and Ihe finely built theatre. 

ol Ihe largest in Greece; and walls about three miles in circuit, twenty 
'Ct high and twenty feet thick, and of the finett polygonal work, are found 
..far the place, Thermon. the ancient capital of Aetolia, comes next. 

The lirsl four cities of Ancient Greece—Athens, Sparta, Thebes and 
Corinth — can be reachrd in less than three days' travel. Parnassus. Snowy. 
Chaeronea and Thermopyl^i- can be reached in anolher day. Thermopyla; 
has in recent limes lo^l its original character. A carnage road, a thousand 
feet above the water, affords a fine view of Ihe gulf, lakes the place of ibe 
past, and so the pass may be circumvented 

Among the walled cities, the most important is Slratos, It has a well- 
preserved foundation of a temple of white limestone. Its walls are exten- 
sive and high. Here, two grim fortress capitals frown at each other for 
ages, with the river rolling between thenv 

The temple at Thermon IS r<;pie>enied by a ptale. This temple was 
reached and destroytd by Philip V„ in revenge for the destruction of 
Dotiona, Thermn has been positively identified, though it had no aero- 
lialis, but was a gathering place on a plain, Thermopol[c is also repre- 
sePled by a plale. but seems lo be a wide plain , instead of a pass. 

Tbessaty is a land apart from Ihe rest ol Greece. It was the home of 
Achilles and Alceslis, It is a land apart to day. Homer speaks o( the 
giants who piled Peliin upon Ossa, but Olympus or Pelion would be the 
natural base upon which to pile other mountains. Tempe is one ol (b> 
great show places of Thessaly, The legend is that Poseidon split open 
with his trident the great range of western mountains and tel out the water 
which made Thessaly a lake. If we let the trident represent an earth- 
<|uake, and put them back in geological limes, it would be true. It was a 
poetical way of describing a geological fact. 

The highest mountain in Greece is called Corvui. or Crow Mountain, it 
is higher Ihan eithi-r Olvmpus or Parnassus. A journey from Athens lo 
Eretria lay through the Pireus, over the sea and the Leiantine Plain, The 
Temple of Apollo with its archaic sculpture commanding the acropolis. 

Greece is such a small country, ihat lo traverse it from end to end, and 
see Sparta. Areos and Thebes, wiib some mountain climbing thrown in, 
takes but ten days. Sparla, represented bv a plate. Is a modern-looking 
village, but the mountains in the backgroutid are the same as they were la 
^e gttM days when it was the seat of the Republic. Thebes espoused the 

me of Persia and led awav nearly all the rest of Reotia, Arcadia is a 

.same to be conjured with. The Stygian pool is her-, — represented by a 
plate. — with an ordinary tin cup hanging to the rock above il. No hotels; 
no carriage roads in a part oF Arcadia, which is as it should be, Epidaurus, 
the sanctuary of Esculapius, is brielly described, and a plate represents 
the ooen air theatre with its hanks of seals. 

The publishers have rlone great credit to themselves In illiistraling the 
t>aok bv valuable plates, two of which have been kindtv loaned ui, but, un- 
fortunately bave been crowded out oi the present number, 

Algonquin Tales. By Edgetton K, Young. Chicago: Fleming H. 



m 



The first impression of ihis book is that it was written more for enter- 
tainment, than for scientific accuracy, and thai some of the laics have been 
exaggerated. This is accounted for oti the ground that the heroes oF the 
story, so to speak, arp [he two children of the auibor, who are associated 



68 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

with Indians, and the storirs arc represented as told to them. It has, how- 
ever, been ascertained from those who know most of the Indian tales ot the 
Crees, a branch of the Algonquins, that they are as represented. Even 
the story of the sea lion is one that is common in this region. The sea lion 
corresponds in this locality to the serpent as represented by the Algonquin 
tribes which were formerly situated along the chain of the Great Lakes. 

Manabozho was the great culture hero of all the Algonquin tribes; he 
was not only the chief divinity and culture hero, but he was the creator and 
preserver and first man. corresponding to Noah. Menu; Greek, Minos; 
German, Maumus, and Egyptian. Menes. The serpent also varies from 
the great fish, or whale, to the dragon, the sea lion, the feather-headed ser- 
pent, and the ordinary snake. We find that Manabozho was swallowed by 
the great fish in Lake Michigan, and the sea lion in Lake Winnepeg; but 
he survived the flood, and became the new creator. The method of crea- 
tion is dwelt upon among the Algonquins of the Great Lakes. It was by 
sending the animals down to get th^ soil from the bottom, out of which the 
new world was to be created After several trials it was accomplished by 
the muskrat. The handful of soil became an island, and then grew to be 
a continent. The twigs which were planted in the mud, grew to be great 
trees. This part of the story is not given in this book, but it would be 
more satisfactory, if it had been, or some reference had been made to it. 
The story of the two brothers who threw rocks at one another, is a familiar 
one. but the name of the streams, is not given. These rocks remain in the 
streams, and are reminders of the contest. It would be interesting to know 
whether there were any stories connected with the far north. 

The picture of the wolf, or coyote, and of the serpent is given, and it 
illustrates another story, which is found not only among the Algonquin, but 
even among the tribes of the Northwest. Here the t^rm of kinisr is used., 
but it is a misnomer, for there is no king among the Indians. The repre- 
sentation is that the fire was preserved in the heart ot the earth, surrounded 
by four walls. Each wall had a single door. The first door waa guarded 
by a snake; the second, by a mountain lion; the third, by a grizzly hear,, 
and the fourth, by Sistinalos. another culture hero. This is only a modem 
version of an old storv which spread from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
There were no walls and no doors in the original storv. It is a question 
whether the author, in telling the story to children, used the word "door**" 
and ** wall " as terms which were suitable for the times and circumstances. 
The picture of the fire stolen out ot the centre of the earth must certainly 
have been drawn from the imagination, (or no such conception was com- 
mon among the Indians. The skillful hunter, who could disguise himself., 
is not so common. The evil spirits, or Windag^oes, who dwell on the land 
and sea, are somewhat novel creatures, though the term '* Manidos " used by 
the author is really " Manitous," and should be spelled so. though the pro- 
nunciation is the same in both cases. Here Wlndagoes. or cannibals, are 
referred to by the tribes of the Northwest coast, but they generally have 
individual names, rather than general names. They are not spooks to- 
scare bad boys, but are genuine fabulous monsters. The picture of the 
rock rolling after the wolverine is also novel. Of course there were live 
rock in the folklore of the Indians: son: e of them could talk, others had 
human faces inscribed upon them. This rock could not talk or run. but he 
could roll. He rolled down tne mountain and overtook the wolverine. It 
would «eem as though the story must have been adapted by the author to 
the children. The addition to the story is that the great black cloud took 
ofif the fine coat of the wolverine, but the frog and the mouse sewed the coat 
op again. This is a new story not found in other myths. Is it genuine or 
not ? The magic sticks and the monster giant which was overthrown by the 
magic rabbit stick, is also a new story; as was the story of the giant, who 
was the keeper of the tobacco, and who was asleep among the bales of 
tobacco The idea that the rattle on the tails of the snakes was made fron^ 
wampum, is also a new one. Who invented it ? 

The story of the giant grasshopper, which was a great giant that could 
change into a grasshopper, is also new; as is the story that Manabozho* 



BOOK REVIEWS. 



could leap from mouDtain to mountain. H« was the greatest grasshopper 
of ail. where does this »torv come From f 

The tall ghoit, called Aunungitee, who stole the boy, is also new. The 
«rpban boy, who was treated ihainefullv by the family, Dut was befriended 
fay a little girl, Is iniereslinf;. This orphan saw the great man in the moon, 
and the man in the moon came down into the world and thrashed the boy, 
but It was the boy's training school. He was afterward prepared lo over- 
throw his enemies; fling them against the rocks; dash out their brains. He 
married the little girl who haa befriended him. The author must have 
drawn on his imagnialioG for this story. 

There is another picture tvhich rem'nds us of Sinbad the Sailor and 
Baron Muochaulcson's expeditions. This time it is a buzzard that Manah- 
boihoo (Manabozho, more correctly) was able lo mount and ride, while the 
buzzard circled around and roee higher and higher. The addition to the 
story. IS tOal the buzzard saw a dead deer from the distance. He alighted, 
and like a greedy bird, he began lo devour the deer and tairly buried him- 
self in the flesh, but by this means be lost all the leathers from his head 
and aecb. The latter part of the story is natural enough, but the first part 
seems to have been borrowed. 

The book is an interesting one, and upon the whole conveys a good 
idea of the myths and stories wnich prevailed among the different Indian 
tribes. For popular eflTecl the changes and modifications of the old stories, 
pultinx them into modern garb, is not so objectionable; but the ethnologist 
inust lake them wiib a gram of salt, fnr they fail to represent the old 
Stories as they were originally told. The book is well adapted to children, 
and probably will awaken an interest among them in native mythology; 
if so, it will accomplish its object. The book is full of illustrations which 
are suggestive, though one or two of the plates might have been modified, 
so as to more truihlully represent the real mvth. Among these: the one 
representing Manabozho leaping into the mouth of the whale or sea lion, 

A door has been opened into the great magic cave in which there 
sparkles so many of the beautiful things and strange creatures, which the 
native tribes were accustomed to see and talk about to their children. We 
may picture the little Indian boys and girls, gathered into the centre of the 
wigwam, with some motherly old squaw entertaining them night afternight 
and filling their imaginations with strange i hings. The scene is repeated, 
though in a modified form, when two while children are entertained by a 
story-teller among the Crets, for the stories are always charming, eveu 
when beard or read by the older people. 1 1 is to be hoped that this is the 
beginning of books like it, for the woods were full of such stories in the 
early days. 



Champlais, thk Pounder of New France. By E Asa Di«. Apple- 
ton's Series of Historic Lives. 

Brant and Red Jacket, By Edward Eggleston, Boston: Dodd. 
Mead & Co. 

How Gborge Rogers Clark Won tke Northwest. By Reoben 
Gold Thwaites. Chicago: McClurg Co. 

These three volumes, along with the History of Anthony Wayne com- 
posed by John R. Speers, may be said to cover the entire history of the stales 
o( New York. Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, and to furnish a general view of 
the condition of the country before and during the War of the Revolulion 
aadthewarof 1794, 

The life of Champlain, as written by Mr. Dix, is very interesting and 
presents the noted man in a new iighl. In fact his personal traits are 
brought out more clearly by ihe littU volume, than by any other thus far 
written. He is a great man wherever he appears, and hit character is 
worthy of the admiration of all. He was very different from La Salle and 
bad fewer enemies, but there were difficulties in his way which he wai able 



70 THE AMERICAN ANTIQCJARIAN. 

to oYcrcome, and he left his mark upon the country as perhaps no one ever* 
did, There are two portraits in the volume, one of which represeaU him* 
at the age of 40, and the other at 65. They are evidently correct. They 
show the calmness, the balance, and the reserve force of the man. Tbo- 
book conveys the same impression as the portraits; the detail of the ftatne 
is carried out to perfection. The sutue is brought out with much pains- 
taking and with a close study of the original. 

The early home and life of the explorer is described in the first three 
chapters; the voyages occupy three more chapters; the founding of Qaebcc». 
the victories over the Iroquois, and the beginnings of Montrealthree mort- 
chapters; the search for the North Sea and the winter among the Hnrons 
tbree more chapters; the incredible delight felt as Champlain returned to* 
Quebec is described in another chapter; the passing of a knightly toni 
occupies the last chapter. Nothing more needs to be said about the book. 
It is an excellent portrait of the man, and contains a good description of 
his work. 

The volume on ** Brant and Red Jacket ^' is a valuable contribution to- 
the history of New York. It covers the same ground that the voluminous 
works of Col. Wm. L. Stone do, and the work of the vouneer Wra. L» 
Stone on the " Life and Time of Sir William Johnson, and the one by 
Lewis H. Morgan. 

It is certainly convenient to have the material of all these histories con- 
densed into one volume of 370 pages, and to have the panorama roll before 
the eyes, while an interesting writer lik«: Miss Seelye Eggleston, the 
daughter of Edward Eggleston, tells the story and describes the scenes. 
The history is all of it full of tragic interest, and is not as familiar to most 
readers as it ought to be. Events followed one another in quick succession*. 
beginning with the people of the long house; battle in the woods by Cham- 
plain ;attacks upon a Seneca town;description of Fatherjacques;the destruc- 
tion of the Hurons, and the work of Champlain. It then turns to the 
account of Brant and his birthplace; his first battle; the Battle of Niagara*. 
and describes Sir William Johnson and his castle. The Battle of the 
Cedars, the Siege of Fort Stanwix, the Battle of Oriskany, the war on the 
borders, and the Battle of Cedar Valley, all come before the eye in graphic 
colors, and are fully explained. 

Col. George Rogers Clark incidentally appears; next Brant and Red 
Jacket appear together. Brant gives battle to General Sullivan; he ap- 
pears to be merciful to his captives, and the impression as to his cruelty is 
modified. He was a great man among the Indians, and was not so bad a 
man as some of the whites imagined. Red Jacket was a very different 
man; he was an orator and not a warrior. He plotted against Brant. 
Brant remembered his old teacher Prest. Wheeler, and showed that he was - 
susceptible to good inflnences. Red Jacket dreamed that he ought to be a 
chief, but he was more of an orator than a chief. The Battle of Chippewa 
is described. The last chapter contains the confession of Red Jacket in 
the following picturesque language; Red Jacket was once a great man. He 
was a lofty man among the smaller trees of the forest; but after years of 
glory, he degraded hiniseff by drinking the fire-water of the white man. 
The Great Spirit has looked upon him in anger, and the lightning haSi 
stripped the pine of its branches." 



i,mcxicsLn ^^ntxqnnvx^n 



Vol. XXVI. March and Apkil, 1904. No 

DISCOVERIES IN EGYPT. 

■ A Verv Eaklv EovPTiAN Inscription. 

BY JOSEPH OFFORD. 

In a recently published number of the well-known French 
archxological journal relating to discoveries in Egypt and 
Assyria, the " Recueil de Travaux," Professor Naville has 
translated and commented fully upon the now celebrated in- 
scription known as the '"Stele of Palermo," because it is pre- 
served in the Museum o( that city- Where the monument 
was first discovered is not certain, but M. Naville shows con- 
vincingly that it originally emanated from Hcliopolia, or On; 
because the hierogylphic texts upon it are really the religious 
annals of that famous city, at an extremely early period of iti 
history. The chronological basis upon which the record^ it 
presents is founded is not one of the I'haraonic reigns, but a 
<ycle, or period, of religious ceremonies. There is no doubt 
*rc must place the date of ils composition in the fifth or sixth 
dynasty. 

The writing is engraved upon the two sides of the stele, 
one giving the before-mentioned list of sacred fetes, for a 
space of time, imder the reign of Sencferu, and upon each 
of the holy days which came round in a fixed annual cycle, 
though they, like the present Mohamedan religious observance 
periods, did not necessarily occur upon the same date in each 
succeeding year, but may, owing to the sacerdotal, or ordinary 
year, not coinciding with the sidereal year, have happened 
iipon different periods of winter or summer, until the annual 
error corrected itself, and commenced agiin. Associated with 
the statement of the recurrence of each of the catalogue of 
fetes, we are given the height of the Nile for that day. 

One very valuable historic fact derived fiom the inscription, 
is that the priestly historians of Heliopolis did not consider 
that the period known as that of the " Followers of Horus' 
terminated with the accession of Menes, that is, with the be- 
gini.ing of what is known as the first dynasty, but with Sane- 
Jeru. It is strange that if this was so, it coincides practically 
with the epoch "when ihe Pharaohs first began to use the well- 
known form of the Cartouche for royal names; and when the 



74 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Thinite supremacy ended — the regal capital was transferred 
to Memphis. If this new view as to the date for the end of 
the ** Horus Followers" rigime is the true one, it will be at 
once apparent that all the early archaically wtitten royal names 
found by Petrie, Amelineau, De Morgan and Quibell (as to the 
date of which being either anterior or just subsequent to 
Menes has given rise to so much dispute) will — although they 
m ly be as M. Naville and some Egyptologists have considered, 
of first or second dynasty kings — fall within the Horus tribal 
period. 

The text upon the other side of the Stele is an enumeration 
of the donations made by various kings to the temples they 
had built, and also refers to a change of reign and enthrone- 
ment of some of these kings. 

It appertains to six Pharaohs in all, Shebseskaf and Neftr- 
kara or Keki, being the two alluded to more particularly. The 
others are Onserkaf, whose favorite deities he endowed, and 
are like the others mentioned. Heliopolitan ones. Another, 
(Sahoura), speaks of a temple he gave presents to, called Abti. 
This shrine is mentioned on one of the very archaic cylinders 
found at Abydos. It is very curious to find that at this primi- 
tive epoch, he imported articles from Pount, for it corroborates 
in a singular wa}', M. Loret's recently expressed theory that the 
"Followers of Horus" were in some manner connected with 
Pount. A king's name is given as Souhetes; this may be some 
new early Pharaoh, or another title of Neferkara, from the 
manner in which it occurs. M. Naville modestly mentions his 
monograph as a *' preliminary study " of the texts. Probably, 
as has been the case with all such inscriptions, other documents 
will be adduced to illustrate its meaning, and further progress 
made as years go by. In conclusion it should be said that the 
Stele has previously been described by Dr. Schafer. 

Quite independantly of Prof. Naville, Herr Sethe has pub- 
lished an important discussion of the *' Palermo Stele," in Vol. 
III. of his ** Untersuchungen.'* He attempts to restore the 
arrangement of the missing parts. He thinks the top line 
alone gave the name of 150 kings, half of upper and half of 
lower Egypt, and all prehistoric monarchs, and that it recorded 
also 650 years from Menes to Seneferu. 

A New Papyrus.* 

The sands of Egypt, which have for so many years yielded 
up many thousands of Greek, Latin, and Arabic manuscripts,, 
are now commencing to present us with Hebraeo- Aramaic 
documents of the greatest interest. Only last year a papyrus 
was published by the *' Society of Biblical Archaeology " con- 
taining the Jewish ** Schema," a text probably of the first cen- 
tury, throwing a great light upon the differences between the 

• A few papyri in th« Pstiie collection mentioas Jews in Egypt in Ptotemaic time. Oa» 
•pealu ef their harinc n city ia the Fayoum aimed Samaria. 



DISCOVERIES IN EGYPT. 75 

ioretic and Septuagini versions of Ihe Pentateuch. The 
same society has also printed a papyrus with numerous Hebrew 
names and a short text, and some other Aiamaic belonging to 
Professor Saycc. A small number of Aramaic papyri are also 
in European museums, especi,illy Berlin. 

Last year, however, it was announced that Herr ReJssner 
had obtained several Aramaic papyri for the University of 
California, and that a mo>t important one from a dealer at 
Luxor had been acquired for the Sira^burg Library. This 
manuscript has now been deciphered and ediled by Professor 
Euling, and is of great interest, boih historical and philological. 
The manuscript i-. a report ol some Persian official to the satrap 
o( the Persian monarch in Egypt relative to an uprising of the 
natives against their conquerors. It is dated " the fourteenth 
year of Daiius." and Protessor Euting shows that it cannot be 
Darius I that is intended but Darius Nothus; B. C. 411-410 be- 
ing his fourteenth regnal year. 

Thi^ monarch, in order to conciliate his Egyptian subjects, 
had added to the edifices of the temples at Edfou, the Scra- 
peum and the El Kharjeh oasis, but in the second half of his 
reign there was an insurrection, and some Saitic princes gov- 
erned mure or less ul the country, among whom was Amyrtaios, 
who, aided by Gieek warrior mercenaries, expelled the Persians, 
The latter being weakened by a rebellion against their governor 
Tissaphernes in Lydia, also there were political troubles in 
Caria A good deal of indirect light is thrown upon these in- 
trigues against the Persian supremacy by the so-called propnet- 
ical Demotic papyrus edited many years ago by M. Revillout, 
It was probably a "call to arms." a sort of secret "toe in" dis- 
guised under the form of pretended previous prophetic utter- 
ances pa.'sed from hand to hand among the Egyptians. Be- 
yond the historical events coinciding with the date assigned to 
the new papyrus its writing is further evidence of its age. 
The forms of the letters are not nearly so archaic as those in 
the Aramaic writing of the Sakkara stele, in Vol. 11. of the 
Corpus of Semitic inscriptions, which was written in 482 B. C, 
the fourth year of Xerxei. 

The name of the Satrap occurring on the papyrus is Arsam. 
In the ■■ Persae" of ^schylus there is a Persian named Arsamas, 
and the fragments of the historian Ktesias tell us a Persian was 
Satrap of Egypt,* 

Coming to the text of the papyrus, it will be better for its 
contents lo be threshed out by Semiticists before giving a full 
translation. It speaks of "Hanub," meaning the Serapeum. 
and gives the titles of three kinds of Persian functionaries, 
illustrating similar officers mentioned by Daniel; one of them 
derived from the Persian word "gauschaka," from "gaus cha " 
ear, or to listen, is a similar title to that of a series of court 



76 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

officials in the Egyptian hierarchy, '* The eyes and ears of the 
Pharaoh." Another word used for province is also the one in 
the Old Testament, and a third used for an "edict," or letter, 
from the royal chancellery occurs in the book of Esther. 

A most curious fact is the finding of the Hebrew word 
Y(a)hv(e)h, or Jehovah. 

There are several fragmentary Hebrew papyri displayed in 
the Museum at Cairo in the upper gallery, and it is to be hoped 
tnore may yet be found in Egypt this season. 

Two New Cuneiform Dispatch Tablets from 

Telel-Amarna. 

No series of ancient records preserved until removed in 
tnodern times beneath the sands of Egypt, has ever been more 
singular or valuable, than that of the hoard of cuneiform tab* 
Jets found some twenty years ago at Tel el-Amarna. , The 
literature about them has been so voluminous that it may be 
said, "and all the rest of their acts and all that they did, are 
they not written in the guide books and the histories of 
Egypt?*' They were, as is well known, a series of dispatches 
to the Pharaohs from Palestine. Syria and Western Asia, of the 
time of Amenophis III. and IV., preceding in date the Hebrew 
Exodus and throwing more light upon the geography, ethnology 
and language of Western Asia at that epoch than any other 
monuments. The collection was sadly scattered, the majority 
going to British and Berlin Museums, a few to Russia, a very 
fair collection remains in Cairo, and one or two are in private 
•hands. A single member, probably a duplicate of a tablet not 
yet recovered in PLgypt, was found at Lachish, in Palestine. 

At the time it was thought the fellaheen kept back some of 
these archives of the Pharaohs, a view confirmed by the ap- 
pearance of another tablet published by Pere Scheil a few 
years ago. The hope that moie of them will turn up is very 
'Iceen, because it is by means of a series of these documents^ 
•wiitten in the unknown North Syrian language of Mitanni, 
th it Professor Sayce is deciphering the Hittite hieroglyphs. 
One tablet alhO which served the Egyptian scribes as an 
•"Assyrian Reading Book," only half of which has yet come 
to hand, gives a very ancient Babylonian legend. In the last 
volume of the ** Bulletin de PInstitut Fran^ais au Caire/' we 
are pleased to say, M. Chassinat is able to give photographic 
copies of two more of these tablets, which tends to indicate 
that still more of them will be forthcoming. 

Among the tablets previously published in the series pre- 
served at Cairo was a letter from an Assyrian king Assur-ubaU 
lat, who reigned about 1400 B.C. Singularly, one of the two 
new dispatches is a second message from the same prince and 
reads as follows: **To the king of the land of Egypt, says 
Assur-uballat King of Assyria to thee, to thy house, to thy 
wriie, to thy chariots and Isoldiers, salutation. 



ANCIENT CITIES OF EGYPT. 



77 



"I have sent a messenger (envoy) to visit you and your 
country. Thidgs which aforetime my fathers never forwarded 
to you see here, I send you. A splendid chariot und a pair of 
horses; and further a ultina in pure lapis (lazuli) as presents 
for you 1 forward. As to my messenger, receive him well, let 
him come and return to me." 

The word uiiina denotes some kind of carving, a small pil- 
lar or decorative object. 

The second ot the new cuneiform written dispatches is 
from Palestine, from a Governor in the Egyptian service there 
whose name is new to us; one Yabisor, reminding Semitic 
scholars of two previous patronymiacs upon these tablets- K(z/j- 
Adda inA Vaditira. 

This ofifical says, "To the King my lord says Ynbi sarru thy 
slave, seven and seven times at your feet I bow. What the 
King has ordered me 1 have performed. Full of fear is all 
Ihc land before the King's soldiers. I have levied my troops, 
ships ^rit at the disposition of the King's soldiers, and whoso- 
ever is a rebel, no house, or hope (or life) shall be left him. 
See 1 have safeguarded the position that the King my lord (has 
confided me). The face of the King my lord be toward his 
servant who is devoted to him." 

The translation here given is from that of P^re SchciU 
whose commentary is ol great value to the student of these 
Tel-el-Amarna documents. 

Whilst these two new tdblels have come to light, two others 
have been uneaithed by Herr Stllin in hia excavations at 
Taanach in Palestine. Hoth of these contain dispatches ad- 
dressed to one Islar-Wasur by persons named Guli-Addi and 
Abi'Ia^i. One letter mentions Rubuti, a place several times 
alluded to in the Tel-el Amarna documents; it was apparently 
near Gczer and Gath. Ahi lawi says he has been in a place 
called Gurra. and mentions a city called Biiritpi. Dr. Peiser. in 
commenting on these texts, suggests that Ahi-Iawi may be a 
local form of writing law-ahi, and that he is none other than 
lapahi. a known prince of Gezer. 

» ANCIENT CITIES OK KGYPT. 

BV WILLIAM E. CUKTIS. 
(KiInotfrDai Hli CcnnpoadtDic laiti< ChicifO Ricord-Hirald] 

We know more about the history of Egypt than of any 
other of the ancient countries except Palestine, because of the 
inscriptions upon the monuments and tombs and the rolls of 
papyrus manuscripts which have been discovered in the coffins 
of mummies. The vanity of the Pharaohs has been very 
profitable to modern scholars, as many of them took the 
trouble to engrave upon imperishable materials in crypto- 
graphs, which we are now able to decipher, accoimts of their 



IJ 



78 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

careers and achievements, more or less in detail, which neces- 
sarily involve the history of their times. 

The writers and artists who were employed by the Pharaohs 
to perpetuate their fame never hesitated to give them what 
they paid for, but. after making reasonable deductions for 
egotism and flattery, we have been given an almost continuous 
history of nearly all the several dynasties that ruled over Egypt 
from the time ot the dt* mi-gods and the invention of picto- 
graphy — the oldest form of expression Jin writing known It 
IS pretty well established, too, that the Egyptians invented the 
art of writing and that our alphabet was adapted from theirs. 
Egyptian characters are to be found in "the Prisse Papyrus'* 
of the eleventh dyasty, which is the oldest book in the world, 
written in the reign of King Seankkara, who lived about 
twenty-five hundred years before Christ. The characteis that 
appear in thi- book are pronounced by the highest of philo- 
logist authority to be prototypes of the letters afterward 
copied by the Greeks from the Phoenicians, and by them trans- 
mitted to the Latins. Thus Egypt is not only the cradle of 
the alphabet, but may be considered the mother of literature. 

The records upon ^.he tombs and monuments, beginning 
with Menes, the first human King ot Egypt, who founded 
Memphis and built one of the great pyramids 6,300 years ago, 
show that the people were seldom governed by a man of their 
own race. Egyptian history for nearly 5,000 years tells of a 
series of conquests by aliens who ruled the country for cen- 
turies at a time until they in turn were overcome and driven 
out by other invaders —Semitic. Ethiopian, Assyrian, Persian, 
Greek, Macedonian. Roman, Saracen and Turkish. There is 
scarcely a representative of the Egyptian race in all of the 
long list that h s been preserved to us. Nevertheless, during 
all these cycles of foreign domination the people have pre- 
served their individuality and racial features, their peculiar 
•customs and other national characteristics — an ethnographical, 
ethnological phenomenon that is equally marked with the 
Jews. 

The story of Egypt, however, as written in hieroglyphics 
upon the walls of monuments, palaces and tombs, is not open 
to dispute. The kings who built the pyramids erected monu- 
ments that cannot perish and have not been removed. There 
is. hoA^ever, a difference of opinion as to exact dates, caused 
by variations of interpretation. Some scholars claim that 
King Menes reigned 5,867 years before Christ, which should be 
nearly 8,000 vears from now, but others bring the date down to 
4,400 B. C. Taking the latter estimate as accurate, we have 
at Sakara, twelve miles from Cairo and nine miles from the 
great pyramid of Cheops and the Sphinx, in what is known as 
*'the Step Pyramid," near the ruins of the ancient city of 
Memphis, the oldest structure of human hands. This we 
know because of inscri^^tions, of which there is no doubt. It 



r 



ANCIENT CITIES OF EGYPT. 



79 

was built by King Tehesor of the third dynasty in the year 
3900 B. C. 

Menes, the first of the kings of Egypt whose name we know, 
was an invader and got hi-s thione by conquest. He came from 
some indefinite place in the Norih, Babylonia, perhaps, over- 
threw' the local chiefs, turned the cour.-.e of the Nile in order 
to have a favorable site for a city, and built Memphis, the capi- 
tal of a kingdom which was consolidated (torn all of the 
countries he had conquered. His descendants reigned for 
about 500 years, and «ere followed by a generation of pyra- 
mid builders, who have left us not only their monuments, but 
their actual bones, which you can see scattered through the 
museums of Europe. The bones of Mycetinus, whom Hero- 
dotus tf lis us was " a just and merciful king," and who built the 
third pyramid at Giich, arc in the British Museum at London. 

It was the fashion of the kings of Egypt from 4400 to 3CXX) 
B. C. 10 erect iheir own monuraenii and sepulchers in the form 
of great masses of masonry. Others erected obelisks, and 
their successors excavated vast caverns in the living rock for 
burial places. There is no longer any doubt that the pyramids 
were lombs or, rather, mastab ihs. The ancient theory that they 
were erected for astronomical observatories and that the great 
pyramids were intended to .serve as a standard of measure- 
ment was exploded long ago, but the method of their con- 
struction has never been satisfactorily settled. Inscriptions 
upon the interior walls, show that it was the tomb of Cheops, 
a king who lived 3,733 j ears before Christ, and inside the 
chamber there has been found an empty, coverless, broken red 
granite sarcophagus, in which his body lay 3,000 years until the 
pyramid was looted by Persian invaders under Cambyset 
between 500 and 600 B. C. 

According to Herodotus, the king kept 100,000 of his sub- 
jects at work for twenty years continuously upon this mon- 
strous sepulcher. some quarrying stone in the Arabian moun- 
tains, others transporting it down the Nile upon raftii and Hat- 
boats, others drawing the immense blocks along causeways, 
which had been built for the purpose, to a great rock which 
Forms the core of the pyramid. 

Alexandria. 
Nearly everybody who comes to Kgypt skips Alexandria, 
which is a great mistake, because it i- one of the finest ports 
jn the Mediterranean and is full of historical reminiscences. 
5ome one has said that Alexandria is a city of sites instead of 
lights, which is a clever epigram and almost true, because you 
:an only see the places where the great buildings stood. Noth- 
ing is left ol them, except here and there a column or a piece 
af carved marble, which has been utilized in the construction 
of a modern buildins;. Alexandria is purely modern. It is 
difficult to realize that it is the famous capitol of Alexander 



8o ~ THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the Great, the scene of the splendors and sensuous luxury of 
Cleopatra and the Ptolemies who reigned in the golden age of 
Egypt- It looks very much like Bordeaux, Marseilles, Havre, 
and other French seaports, and for that reason tourists hur^ 
through from the docks to the railway station wihout stopping 
to think of the memories that might be awakened during a 
visit of a few days. 

Alexandria, after Antioch, was the headquarters of ihc 
Christian church in early times, and St. Maik lived and 
preached here for nearly haif a century. Here, too, occurred 
the great theological controversies which split the followers 
of Christ into sects; here was the center of intellectual culture 
for six hundred years, and the great libraries brought together 
the most eminent intellects of the age. Here, too, was the 
southern capital of the Roman Empire, and these streets have 
witnessed some of the most brilliant pageants that ever 
astonished the world. Cleopatra and Mark Antony lived here 
in the greatest splendor. Julius and Augustus Caesar, Trajan, 
Hadrian and Constantine the Great, were all residents of 
Alexandria, from time to time, and Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, 
lived here enthroned from 268 to 273 A. D. Volumes have 
been written to tell the history of which Alexandria has been 
the scene from the days of its founder, Alexander the Great, 
to the departure of Ismail, the dethroned khedive, for Naples 
in 1879, with three hundred women from his harem and four 
ship loads of treasure which he stripped from the khedival 
palace. 

Steamers for India, Australia and other points beyond the 
Suez Canal land their pas^en^ers at Port Said, who go to Cairo 
by rail. Steamers that go no farther than Egypt have their 
entrepot at Alexandria, whicti is the great port of the country 
and handles 80 per cent, of its foreign commerce. The harbor 
is one of the best on the Mediterranean and its natural advan- 
tages, which are equal to those of Marseilles and Naples, have 
been improved by va-t engineering works, which are of great 
historic importance as well as interest to the engineer. This 
port is a monument to Alexander the Great, for he made the 
harbor by the construction of avast mole called the **Hep 
pastadion," joining the Island of Pharos to the mainland. 
While we hear very little about this work, it is one of the most 
cxtenstve and brilliant triumphs in the history of engineering; 
as great in its way as the pyramids, and even greater than the 
construction of the S.iez Canal. 

Cairo and Its University. 

There is excellent railway service between Alexandria and 
Cairo, as good as any in Europe or the United States, and Ex- 
cept for the sand and dust, which cannot be avoided in cross- 
ing a desert, the journey is quite comfortable. 

The University of Cairo, El Azhar, as it is called, for cen- 




ANCIENT CITIES OF EGYPT. 8t 

turies has been one of the most famous in the woiid, and 
wherever you go in Mohammedan counlrjes you will hear it 
spoken of as a great institution, one of the g.ealest, oldest and 
most influential in all the universe, with a faculty ot nise, 
learned and progressive men. It is the only institution tor 
higher education under the caie uf Islam, and young Moham- 
medans of wealth and future responsibililies are sent there 
from every land in which faith in the prophet is proclaimed. 
It is perhaps the oldeit of all universities, being the outgrowth 
of the Serapeum which was established at Alexandria by 
Ptolemy Soter 300 B. C, In connection with the great library. 
Saladin, however, was the actual founder of the present insti- 
tution, about 1170. He gave it its present home, which it has 
occupied ever since, and there is not the slightest doubt that at 
one lime it did e-xercise a powerful influence throughout the 
civilized portion of the world. 

It is not what we would considtr a university. At Ifast it 
is not arranged or conducted upon the plan which we are 
accustomed to; but it has from 10,000 to 12.000 students Irom 
all parts of Turkey, Syria. Algiers, India, Bokhara, Turkestan, 
Afghanistan and the other IVlohamnicdan countries. Most of 
them, however, are from Egypt and the countries immediately 
surrounding it. 

The faculty numbers about 350 moulahs, or priests, many of 
whom are absolutely ignorant of every branch of learnmg 
except the theology of the Koran, which they leach after the 
interpretation of the sect to which they belong. S.veral of the 
professors have a wide reputation for scholarship, and perhaps 
there is more profound knowledge of the oriental languages 
and literature among them than elsewhere. Not long ago one 
of them accepted a call to a chair in an American college, and 
carries with him an ability and knowledge of Sanscrit and the 
ancient and modern tongues of the East that is perhaps un- 
equaled by any other living scholar. 

Stone Towers. 
The trip up the river is of great interest, abounding in 
lany histoiical spots, and in strange and superb .scenery, and 
as the domes and minarets of picturesque Cairo gradually dis- 
appeared in the distance, it became really beautiful, with th; 
flat, sandy wastes reaching as far as the eye could see on one 
side, and the fertile irrigated bottom lands, hemmed in by 
precipitous rocky ledges, on the other. Along the steep sides 
of this eroded sandstone ledge, although several miles away, 
could be seen many dark entrances to caves and caverns, which 
no doubt in ancient times, primitive people had used for places 
of safely and refuge. Also on many of the small hills and 
promontories could be seen round stone tower-, two or three 
3to*ies in height, entirely separated from any other ruins, and 
evidently of great antiquity. I was unable to find out any- 




^2 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

thing in regard to their history or use. but no doubt in the early 
troublesome days, they were both used as watch towers and 
fortifications. 

The necropolis of Sakkara seems to cover the whole top of 
this enormous tableland. It is exceedingly rich in sepulchral 
monuments of every kind, consisting of pyramids, and rock 
hewn caverns, containing tombs and sarcophagi, dating from 
both the early and later empires, and it is said that in past cen- 
turies, it has been a rich field for the Byzantine and Khalifs in 
their search for treasure, and even in modern times, many 
strange and valuable discoveries have been made here. 

One thing, which immediately attracted my attention, was 
the short time in which even the most recent excavations were 
covered over with sand by the wind. In the heavy storms, the 
loose, light colored sand blows very easily across the high 
plateau, filling up all depressions and excavations, and some- 
times piling up in large drifts, as one sometimes sees on the 
sea shore. In one place where a recent excavation exposed the 
lateral view of the layers of drift, I spent some time studying 
the innumerable multi-colored drifts and layers of various 

Eeriods of occupation; as also the many potsherds and broken 
ones, which protruded from the ledge. 

The outlines of the Step Pyramid, the tomb of the mythi- 
cal King Zoser, of the third dynasty, strike the eye at once, on 
account of its unusual shape, consisting ot six huge steps, each 
one being just six times as high as a tall man. It contains 
many curious and complicated passageways and chambers in 
its vast interior, many of them being made by treasure-seekers 
long after the royal tomb had been closed. 

How remarkable it is, that so many of these almost inacces- 
sible monuments of ancient times, have been systematically 
looted, even in the early centuries. Much enthusiasm and per- 
severance would be required to bore these long shafts and tun- 
nels througrh so many hundred feet of solid stone. 

Some distance to the southwest, stands the Pyramid of 
King Onas, the tomb chamber of which was found in i88i, 
closed by three massive doors of granite. Opening these with 
much difficulty and expense, the explorers found three cham- 
bers in the interior, which contained many funeral inscriptions 
of great interest. In one of the chambers, the walls of which 
were of oriental alabaster and decorated with many mural 
paintings in bright colors, they found the huge granite sarcoph- 
agus of tne king. , 

Memphis. 

We arrived at the site of ancient Memphis, which, to say 
the least, was very disappointing. Before us lay a dreary sandy 
^aste, scantily shaded here and there by palms; the ground 
-covered with blocks of rudelv trimmed granite, broken bricks 
and potsherds. No one would know from the general appear- 
ance of this region, that here once stood one of the largest and 



ANCIENT CITIES OF EGYPT. 



83 



most renowned cities of ancient times. Heaps of debris and 
-crumbling walls of sun-drieJ bricks of Nile mud, arc all that 
now remain of the once famous city, and its many magnificent 
public buildings, palaces and temples. It is said that the build- 
ings, which were made of hewn stone, were taken down many 
centuries ago. and the stones removed to ihe other side of the 
Nile, for the construction of the modern palaces. No doubt 
tnis old city and Its crumbling ruins have been pillaged many 
times in the past centuries before its many rich treasures and 
relics were exhausted, and even now, I believe that systematic 
explorations and excavations by trained experts would bring to 
J'ght many objects of interest to the whole world. 

Mastabah ok Ti. 
As we proceeded on our journey and passed through another 
palm-shaded village called Mt. Rahineh. we arjived at the site 
of the remarkable Mastaba of Ti. It is 3 rectangular mauso- 
leum of solid ma-ionry somewhdt resembling a low truncated 
pyramid, and very Itulc o( the exterior is now visible. Ti is 
mastaba, like ihe others on this plateau, which we were not 
able to enter on accuuni of their beiiig entirely covered up by 
sand, contains in Ihe first chamber.'-, colored ,bas reliefs of the 
members of the deceased family, together with some short, 
simple inscriptions peculiar to that period, describing the 
■dignities of the deceased and the offerings presented in his 
honor. In the other chambers, interesting inscriptions are 
found, such as lists of offerings at various seasons and festivals; 
and elaborate representations of the deceased's favorite pur- 
suits and of his most valuable possessions. As we entered Ihe 
gloomy chambers far underneath the surface of the sandy des- 
ert, and examined by the dim light of our candles, these re- 
markable inscriptions and colored bas reliefs, it was difficult to 
realize how they could have accomplished such accurate and 
perfect woik as this, so many centuries ago. Elaborate scenes, 
such as bird-catching, fishing, the vintage, glass-blowing, car- 
ipentering and ship building, gold washing, papyrus making and 
writing are depicted with great care and accuracy, perfectly 
illustrating the manners and customs which were, no doubt, in 
vogue during this early stage of the civilization of man. 

Rock-Hewn Tombs. 
The probable development and origin of these strange 
tombs is of interest. Egyptians who were renowned and of 
great wealth, generally began early in their lives to plan their 
tombs, to make them worthy of their social status, and the 
longer they lived and the more powerful and w> althy they be- 
came, the more elaborate were their tombs. The rock-hewn 
structures were generally completed during the life-time, and 
then the work of the draughtsman and decorator began, the 
smooth stone wall being divided up into squares and sections 



84 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

with rcd'chalk, with pictures and hieroglyphs, which were cut 
into relief by the stone >mason, and last of all, decorated in* 
colors by the painter. When the proprietor of the tomb died, 
his remains were deposited in the tomb at once, and the task, 
of decorating ceased, whether finished or not. 



♦-«" 



SITE OF MASCOUTEN REDISCOVERED. 

BY REV. THOMAS CLITHERO. 

In Wisconsin's prehistoric period there existed an Indian 
city with the musical name of Mascouten. It was located,, 
according to Dablon (1675), " *" ^^^ midst of a terrestrial 
paradise," the way to which, over the stony rapids of the lower 
Fox River, is "likened to the way to heaven." Situated upon 
a commanding bluff, at the junction of many rivers, with a 
phenomenal range of vision over prairies green and park-like 
groves, it was a land of game and corn, of fruit and flowers, a 
land of strategy, of commerce and of material plenty. 

The Mascoutens were the crltbraitd ge?is de feu, or ** Fire 
Nation." Their city existed through an age of mighty hunters 
and warriors; through a series of momentous and violent transi- 
tions; under three flags and as many races; through an era of 
changes, marvellously rapid, from barbarism to civilization, and 
during all that period its people were associated with every 
great event and every heroic name of those stirring times. 
Here Nicollet (1634), the first white man to tread the soil of 
Wisconsin, paused on his journey to the ** Great Water," and 
for some inexplicable reason turned back within three days' 
journey of his quest, without having solved the mystery of the 
Mississippi, the Vermilion Gulf or the China Sea. 

Here Marquette and Joliet (1672), Hennepin and De Luth 
(1680), La Hontan and Perrot (1688), enjoyed hospitality; and 
here, at a later date, both Perrot and De Tonty, Morand and 
De Lignery, provoked hostility by thirst for conquest and the 
greed of commerce. 

When the smoke of battle of the French and Indian wars 
had blown away, it was found that amid the confusion, Mas- 
couten had disappeared. Its people had vanished and left 
nothing but a name. No trace of the location of the one, or 
the whereabouts of the other, has until now been found. A city 
of twenty thousand inhabitants, with thirty suburban villages,, 
containing a dozen tribes, with three whole nations and as 
many languages, had vanished like the lost tribes of Israel and 
left not a trace of themselves or their dwelling place. Since 
that day one prominent question has agitated Wisconsin anti- 
quarians, with an interest enhanced by mystery. Where was 
Mascouten ? Where was the Mission of St. James ? Marquette 
1673) in his journal thus answers this question: 



SITE OF MASCOUTEN REDISCOVERED. 85 

"We knew that al three leagues from Mascouten was a river 
-which discharged into the Mississippi; that the direction to it 
was west-southwest, but that the road is bToken by so many 
swamps and small lakes that it is easy to lose one's way, especi- 
ally as the way leading thither is so full of wild oats (rice) that 
it is difficult to find the - hannel." With this stiteoitnt every 
other ancient author agrees. Hennepin makes the journey 
down the crooked, rice choked stream six hours' long. La 
Hontan traverses the wild rice jungles in half a day. Feathcr- 
stoaeaugh (1S35), the English geologist, warped his canoe 
through the sea of wild rice and mud between 9 a. m. and 2 p. m. 
Shea quotes Allouez as finding the Kickapoos on the Wisconsin 
River four leagues from Mascouten. Nicollet was three days' 
journey from the Mississippi down a large stream. He evi- 
dently stood at the Portage. Father Crespel, of De Lignery's 
( 1770) expedition, found Mascouten on a little river leading to 
a large river which connects with the Mississippi. He describes 
exactly the south, or Portage, branch of the Fox River. 

It might seem as if this language were sufficiently explicit 
to prevent all controversy, and that the place located and de- 
scribed by so many authors should have been found long ago. 
The different voyageurs, however, to the ancient city and be- 
yond, having different errands and different terminals to their 
journeys, give certain incidental references or faint allusions 
which to non-rtsident authors have seemed discrepant, but to 
the habitants are supplementary and confirmatory, 

Hennepin and Du Luth, who approiched Mascouten from 
the south, find the city located directly on the banks nf a lake, 
or lakes, which were intersected by a phenomenally crooked 
stream leading from the Portage. Allouez and Dablon, how- 
ever, who arrived fron the north, beach their canoes on the 
banks of a river which was a "short league" norlh of the 
to*n. From thence they make their way on foot to Mascouten 
over ipraines and woodlands one and one-half miles south. 
Marquette and Joliet. on the other hand, who approach from 
the north, but are going, not to Mascouten merely, but beyond 
to the Portage, have the curiosity to leave their canoes in the 
shallow, rice choked lake intersecting the stream of Hennepin, 
while they go and drink of the celebrated mineral waters on 
the river which Dablon tells us is about a mile and a half to 
the north, and which Marquette says is not far from that town. 

The Baron la Hontan had still greater curiosity to explore 
this river of AUouez and Dablon, whicn came from the west 
and norlh. and which he accurately delineates on his map, 
spending four days in the upward and downward journey with- 
out calling at Mascouten, one and one- half miles southward, 
until his return. This journey was taken for the purpose of 
examining the fortified beaver hunters' camps of the Outa- 
gamies, whose village is definitely located at the forks of the 
fiver which he describes, and it is now that wc hear for the first 



86 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

time of the Outagamie River, subsequently changed to Fox: 
River, which was the nickname of the tribe. On his returi> 
down this river of the Outagamies and of Dablon, which 
flowed to the north of Mascouten, La Hontan lands on the- 
banks of the little lake of Hennepin and Marquette. Here he- 
finds the Captain General of all the tribes of Central Wisconsin, 
a title accorded only to the Mascouten chief, and is taken by 
him to the summit of the neighboring bluffs, where from the 
famous out ook he can see the disposition of th^ beaver camps. 
After two days La Hontan proceeds to the portage up the little 
rice fringed stream. 

It thus appears clearly that there were two streams at Mas- 
couten whose confluence was not far below the town. 

The one was a river flowing from the west and a mile and a 
half north of the town. The other was a rice choked stream 
of swamps and shallow lakes extending directly under the 
southern wall of tue town, flowing from the Portage. The 
western branch w»s anciently considered the parent stream, 
and was cilled by the Winnt^bagoes the Neenah, or river. It 
was named by the whites, however, the Outagamie, the Reynard,, 
or the Fox. It is still denominated by a piece of stupid geo- 
graphy the Neenah (/ e, the river) Creek. The southern 
braich, which has usurped the name and rank of the western, 
was anciently called Hihorokera, or Running Swan. The 
French boatmen with Father Hennepin attempted to kill a 
running swan near Governor's Bend and tipped over their 
canoe, hence, apparently, the name. 

All the maps of the perioc , except Thevenot's, omit the 
Running Swan. All of them, except Joliet, describe the 
Neenah alone. It will thus be seen that modern geography 
has reversed the ancient in every particu'ar, and in the con- 
fusion of terms the key of the situation has been lost. The 
Hihorokera, which was ignored anciently, is now magnified 
into the Fox River. The river of the Outagamies, or Foxes, 
described anciently as the parent and only stream, is now re- 
duced to a creek and its existence forgotten. To add to the 
confusion, a modern canal has been dug from Portage to Fort 
Hope, running sometimes a mile away and from three to six 
feet lower than the ancient bed. Into the bed of this new 
channel the waters of the Swan have been drained. The shal- 
low lakes have all but disappeared. A stream of surplus water 
from the Wisconsin pours into the big ditch, whose current is 
held back for navigation by the government locks and dams.. 
Here, then, is the modern Fox River, which has little connec- 
tion with the ancient Neenah or the Swan. Only an old 
pioneer whose life has been spent on the upper river, and 
whose studies have been pursued on its banks, could ever hope 
to find the ** clew of the maze." Summarizing the data we now 
possess, deducting one-third the distances for the crooks o£ 
rivers arid trails, we have the following exact calculation: 




Maicouten was five and one-half miles north of the Wis- 
consin Portage. It was four miles north of the Fort Winne- 
bago Portage. It uas one and one-half miles south of the 
springs of Corning on the Neenah. It was one and one-half 
miles southeast from the old forks of the Neenah, where the 
Outagamie village stood, and one- half mile west of Governors 
Bend Canal and locks. It was therefore exactly in Seymour's 
Valley, at the htad of Mud Lake, on the banks of the Hiho- 
rokcra. or Running Swan. The fortification mounds which 
supported the palisades of the fortress are indispensable to the 
artiumenl. These have been sought diligently all through the 
Upper Fox Valley, but cannot be found. They stand revealed 
at Port Hope without the seeking, scattered over two square 
miles of territory, showing wonderful military skill in their con- 
struction. Weapons of stone and copper, and one of bronze of 
exquisite worknianship. have been found sown like dragon's 
teeth over the surface of the soil. Coins ranging from 1686 to 
1786 have been turned up by the plough. Indian corn hilts and 
garden ridges furnish evidence of former cultivation. Fretted 
river landings and crumbling trading posts give proof of ancient 
commerce. Seymour's Valley was a natural fortress, a sort of 
Indian Gibraltar, vastly stronger by nature than the modern 
post of Fort Winnebago ever was made by art. Its front was 
protected by four lines of defence — an impassible swamp, an 
unfordable river, a precipitous bank and a palisaded wall. Its 
sides were i^heltered by lofty bluffs. Its double outlet in the 
rear was commanded by a central buttress of rock. A spring 
brook flows within the inclosure. Innumerable fountains spring 
up in the deserted river bed. The waters never freeze in winter. 
They arc never warm in summer. Even natural dra nage was 
perfect, owing to the shape of the soil. 

From the bluffs of the old Maicouten on the Swan and on 
the Neenah th; outlines of seven counties are still visible- 
Far as the eye can reach and beyond the range of vision, no 
limit could be discovered to the vast prairies and groves of 
oak. The Fire Nation had learned the art of beautifying the 
tht landscape without toil, and clearing the timber without 
labor. Under these massive oaks and under those sheltering 
bluffs the Mascoutens pitched their many wigwams. 

Both Allouez and BabSon (1669-1675), and Marquette and 
La Hontan (1673-1688), allude to the marvellous range of 
vision from the summit of the line of bluffs of which Kay 
Poseeda on the Neenah was one terminal, and Mascoutens 
Bluff on the Running Swan was the other. 

Just south of Rocky Point is Battle Hill, the probable scene 
of the first FoxMascouten versus Iroquois conflict mentioned 
by La Hontan, both of which were fought on the same day 
with varying fortune. We call this the battle of Kay Poseeda 
"Point of Rock). Both the copper spears of this collection, 
■o battle axes and a half dozen stone lances, nearlv all broken 






THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

at the shaft and of a material and form strange to Wisconsin, 
were found upon this lofiy bluff. The choicest axe was found 
there recently in a stone pile by a passer by. showing that the 
owner of :he land did not know what it was, and indicating 
that there are probably doze is more yet to be picked ujj by 
more intelligent investigators. 

THK PHILLIPINE TREE-DWKLLERS. 

The Philippines may not boast of a " wild man " just Ike 
the popular conception of the man from Borneo, but theycon- 

^_, tain tree dwellers quite as much as 

^j|A^|BnB^ does Borneo. Indeed, it is probable 
flWlCLjWafl "'^' '''^ '"^^ dwellers of northern 
"^™^^ Luzon art close kindred of the Dyaks 
of interior Borneo, who live abov« the 
grouiid. In both cases those who find 
it advisable to live where they can 
drop rocks, slicks, etc.. on invaders' 
heads are offshoots of a head-hunting 
race. It is 'rue that the most thorou(;h- 
going head hunters of the Philippines, 
the Igorrotes of Bontoc, a little prov- 
ince in the north central mountain I 
chain of Luzon, live in houses built on I 
the ground, but at their altitude fewtree« 
grow save mountain pines, and natural 
conditions have made them forget their 
tree-dwelling habits generations ago. 
The Lu;fon tree dwellers live furttier 
down, on the eastern slope of the 
mountains, even down in the valley of 
tht- Kio Grande de Cagayan. They are 
cousin% of the Bontoc Igorrotes, and 
doubtless cousins, longer separated, of 
the Borneo Dyaks. 

These tree dwellings are not perma- 
ople, but are generally used as places of 
refuge when the vlllagei or houses on the level below are 
attacked by an emeny. There are. however, many localities 
farther East where whole villages are built upon tree tops, as 
the people are so beset by wild animals and venemous reptiles 
that they are rbliged to resort to the tree tops for safety. In 
this way they are able to sleep securely at night, and at the 
same time escape the heat and malaria which prevail. 

The cut, however, shows the skill which this rude psople 
exercise in house building, for it is certainly much more diffi- 
cult to build a house on a tree top than it is on a common level. 
It may be that the experience was gamed by building the 
houses on platforms above the water. 



TRHE DWELLING. 

ncnt homes of the pe( 



« 



ARCHITECTURE IN THE PROTO-HISTORIC AGE. 

By STEPHEN D. FEET, PH. D. 

We have in a previous article described the roclc-cut 
structures which arc found in the wilderness of Sinai, m the 
region of Mt Hor and in close proximity lo the ancient city 
of Petra, a city which shows that ihe highest style of Roman 
architecture hqd been introduced into the midst of the desert 
and had covered the barren rock with the adornments of art. 
We now continue the subject, with a view of showing the age 
and period to which these rock-cut structures belong. 

The point which we make, is that stone monuments and 
megalithtc structures belong to the prehistoric period and 
constitute the beginnings of thil period, but there were other 
structures which belong to the protohistoric period, and 
still others to the historic period. It may be said (hat 
the archiologists have all of them argued for the exist- 
ence of a prehistoric age. and have recognized the difference 
between the epochs or divisions of the age, these epochs 
being founded upon the study of the rude stone monuments, 
when classified according to their characteristics and their 
dates The order adopted is as follows : First, caves: second, 
kitchen-middens; third, mounds, tumuli and barrows; fourth, 
lake-dwelling, cromlech*, alignments, stone circles anJ cran- 
nogs, and fifth, towers. These followed one another in quick 
succession, and marked the st.)ges through which society 
passed in prehistoric times. They, however, give very few 
hints as to the beginnings of historic times and furnish no evi- 
dence at to the dates in which hi-tory began. 

In reference to the prolo-hisloric period very little effort 
has been heretofore made to identify any class of monuments 
as peculiar to it, and in fact there has been a hesitation on the 
part of archxologists to recogni/e ii as a distinct period. It 
IS, however, worthy of notice that many ancient structures have 
been disclosed at Cyprus and Crete, and many other localities 
on either side of the Mediterranean Sea, which arc distinct 
from both prehistoric and historic structures, and constitute in 
themselvesascparatc horizon, which perhaps might be ascribed 
to the Bronre Age. 

As to the date at which the historic period began, there is 
much uncertainty, but the probability is that there were differ- 
ent dates; for recent discoveries are proving that history in 
Egypt and Babylonia goes many hundreds, and even thousands, 
of years back of the date in which the record began, either in 
Greece or Syria or Asia Minor, or even Crete; though in these 
latter regions the proto-historic period began at an early date, 
and tarried for many centuries. 




90 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

As to the monuments and tokens which characterized this 
proto-historic period, there is a difference of opicion, but 
archxologists generally are agreed that the appearance of the 
column and the beginning of writing constitute the line where 
the historic period began and the prolo-historic ended. There 
were, however, many rude structures which pieceded the ap- 

Eearance of the column, and yet do not belong to the pre- 
istoric age. Among these we maymention the various altars, 
tombs, some of the obelisks, gateways, triangular arches, and 
the caves which contain the tombs, and some of the mastabas 
and the labyrinths. These are wjilely dihtributed, but wfaere- 
ever they appear they constitute the border line between the 
prehistoric and historic period. 

Bronze also serves to mark the bordtr line between the 
prehistoric ami pmto historic period on the one side, and the 




proto-historic and the historic on the other, for it was (he ap- 
pearance of bronze which introduced the proto-historic period, 
and it was with the use of iron that the historic period D^an. 
Thit is an important point, for the outlines of the double- 
bladed ax have been found on the structures which have 
recently been exhumed by Arthur Evans in the island of Crete. 
showing that the various altars and temples, palaces and halls, 
found [here beneath the soil belonged to the Bronze Age. 
The same point is impretsed upon us by the discoveries of 
•irhlicmann in Troy and Mycenae. Gold was more conspicu- 
ous than bronze in his discoveries, but there are many evi- 
dences, beside the testimony of Homer, to show that it was 
during the Bronze Age that the proud cities began to arise. To 
this age we may ascribe the remarkable gateway at Mycenx. 
and other structures, many of which are situated in Greece and 




:0LUKN5 IM THE TOMB AT BENl MASSBN, 




V 



ARCHITECTURE IN THE PROTO-HISTORIC AGE. 9J 

Epirus; but there are others in Asia Minor, In Phrygia, and as 
far cast as Persia. 

It may be said that the earliest stages of architecture are 
found in these rude structures, and by this nieani we are able 
to distinguish them from the rude stone monumenti which are 
situated in the same region, but seem to have belonged to a 
different people and a different age. 

Now, it will be profitable to take up these structures which 
are scattered throughout the length and breadth of ihis belt of 
latitude, and study their characteristics and see whether they 
do not constitute a period, as well as a stage of advancement, 
which can be distinguished from those which followed afterward. 

I. We begin with the land of Eyypt. Here the rock-cut 
structures are quite numerous and are somewhat familiar, be- 
cause included in them, are many objects concerning which 
much has been written. Everyone knows about the sphinx, 
but this belongs to a class of rockcut structures which have a 
great variety of forms, and which seemed to belong to the 
historic age, but after all they date their beginnings back to the 
proto-historic period and on this account arc very interesting 
objects of study. 

There was a great variety to the structures which were 
erected during this period. Some of them wercmerely cut 
out of the rock, and had no semblance to the architectural 
structures which appeared afterwards; others are in the shape 
of altars, obelisks, pillars, gateways and tombs. A very in- 
teresting class of structures, which appeared in this period, 
were animal and human images, all of which were cut out of 
the rock, the best specimen of which may be found in the 
Sphinx. The Sphinx is supposed to represent the king who 
built the second pyramid. It was carved out of a rock which. 
broke the view of [he pyramids, and is near the platform on 
which they stand, with its head toward the Nile. It is elevated 
twelve feet above the present soil. Only the head and should- 
ers are now visible. Some years ago, the sand was cleared; 
away and it was found that a sloping descent, cut in the rock 
for 135 ftet, ended in a flight of 313 steps and a level platform 
from which another flight of thirty steps descended to the 
space between the Sphinx's fore paws. The height from the 
platform between the protruded paws and the lop of the head 
is 62 feet; the paws extend 50 feet, and the body is 143 feet 
long; being sculptured from the rock, excepting a portion of 
the back and the (ore paws, which have been cased with hewr» 
stone. The countenance is now so much mutilated that the 
outline of the features can with diflicultv be traced. The head 
has been covered with a cap, the lower pari of which remains, 
and it had originally a beard, the fragments of which were 
found below. The space between the protruded paws appears 
to have served as a temple, in which, at least in later times, 
sacrifices were performed to the deity. Immediately under the 



I 



JJ 



■<H THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

breast stood a granite tablet, and another of limestone on 
either side, resting against the paws. The first contaias a 
representation oE Tholhmes IV. offering incense and making 
libation to the Sphinx, with a long inscription in hieroglypiiics, 
reciting the titles of the king. On the paws are many inscrip- 
tions of the Roman times, expressive of acts ol adoration to 
the Sphinx or E^^pytian deities. No opening has been found 
anywhere in the figure, which is probably solid rock. Though 
its proportions arc colossal, its outline is pure and graceful; 
the expression mild, gracious, and tranquil; the character is 
African, but the mf uth, the lips of which are thick, has a soft- 
ness and delicacv of txecution truly adniir.>ble. That it is an 
Egyptian head is plainly evident, notwiihstanding its mutila- 
tion. The 
type, however. 
IS rather fuller 
and broader 
than is usual 
in Egyptian 
slaiues. 

The statues 
of M e m n o n 
furnish two 
other speci- 
mens of rock- 
cut structures. 
These two 
colossal sil- 
ling figures, 
cut out of the 

COLUMHAIt DOLHBN IN EUBOPK, Solid rOck 

command the approach to a temple, now in ruins, in a quarter 
of western Thebc*. The height of each of these statues is 
forty-seven feet, and they rest upon pedestaN about twelve 
feet high. One of these has excited much wonder, because 
of its vocal powers, for it is said to have emitted its voice at 
the rising sun, but Sir Gardner Wilkinson found in the lap of 
the statue a stone, which on being siruck emitted a metallic 
sound, though Mr. I.ane maintains that he repeatedly hearii a 
sound, like thai of a harp string, from the vlone above him, 
which was produced from the influence of the -^un's rays. 

There are also rock-cut tombs and statues in Egjpt. The 
most famous of these is the rock-hewn temp e at Abnu Simbel; 
this temple belongs to his'ory. On its fatjade are four colossal 
figures of Rameses II , represented as seated, sculptured out 
of solid rock, two on each side of the doorway. These are 
said to be the large-t statues in Egypt. They measure from 
the sole of the feet to the top of ihe head, sixty-five feet. 
Over the entrence to the temple is carved in relief, the figure 
of the god Ra. The principal hall in the great temple is lined 




ARCHITECTURE IN THE PROTO-HIS TORIC ACE. 



95 



with statues of the gods, also carved out o£ the rock. These 
statues belong to a comparatively late period, but are the sur- 
vivals of such statues as were common in a very early period. 
Taken along with the Sphinx and the statues of Memnon, they 
show the progress of sculpture and of statuary, the seated 
figure being specially significant. 

The best illu<itration of the proIo-histDric structure is found 
io the lomb of Beni Hassan. This presents the earliest and 
most primitive form of the column, and taken in connection 
with the other temples of Egypt may be said to mark the very 
beginnings of architecture. We see in the totnb, the earliest 
form of the Doric column, for it has no pediment and no capi- 
tal, a mere square block lakes the place of the capital. The 
column is a plain shaft. It has no taper, but is the same size 
from the bottom to the top. (See the plate ) 

The obelisks of Egypt arc, perhap-;, more strictly proto- 
historic siructures, than are those whicti have been mentioned. 
Many of these belong to the historic period, yet they began to 
be built in the proto-historic period, and had many stages of 
development before the historic period began. The obelisks 
were evidently at the first sun-dials, or at least symbols of sun 
worship. 

T he resemblance between these obelisks of Egypt and those 
found at Petra, is especially worthy of notice. The obelisks 
of Egypt are covered with inscriptions, which magnify the 
names of the various Egyptian kings; while those which stand 
on the rocks above the temple at Petra are plain shafts, and 
have no inscriptions upon them. 

2. We turn from Egypt to Crete and Paphos and the 
islands in the Mediterranean Sea. These localities have 
recently excited much attention, owing to the discoveries 
which have been made in them. The most remarkable of these 
discoveries were made by Mr. Arthur Evans in the Island of 
Crete, the description of which is as follows; 

Mr. Arthur Evans discovered in ICnossos a series of levels 
containing votive and sacrifical deposits connected with the 
cultus of the Cretan Zeus, whose special symbol was the double 
ax. In the central area of the pilace of Knossos, he brought 
to light the foundations of two altars, which showed a special 
relation to the god of the ax. 

He says: "The cult objects of Mycenaean times coni. 'fd 
of sacred stone pillars and trees; but certain symbolic objcc:., 
like the double ax, stood as the impersonation of the divinity." 
Mr. Evans also thinks that the heraldically opposed animals on 
cither side of a central post, such as are found in Mycenae, over 
the gate, may have come either from Egypt or Babylonia, but 
they are evident'y survivals from the proto-historic period. 
The idea of the dolmen as a " Pillar of the House " was very 
prom nent in this early religion. The Phrygian image of the 
cotuoin found cut upon the tombs, belongs to a later date, but 



96 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

represents the pillar cult. He holds that the primitnre pillar, 
with a cap stooe at the top, tapered toward the bottom, and 
refers to a specimen of it found in a dolmen, the outmde of 
which was midc up of megaliths, which formed the roof and 
the sides, but were covered all over with caps or roonded 
cavities, the entire dolmen forming a shrine devoted to Ibe 
pillar cult. Such pillars are also seen in the side cells of the 
megalithic buildings of the Island cff Malta, an island which 
seems to have been filled with the traces of the two periods — 
the prehistoric and the proto-historic. 

These prehistoric works of Malta have been ascribed to the 
Phoenicians, but they are the outgrowth of a cult which was wide 
spread and had its chief development in megalithic structures. 
They show that there was a gradual transition from rude stone 
monuments to architectural structures during the proto-historic 
period. The dolmen like character of many of the Mycenaean 
shrines, especially those seen in the rings, some of which 
present the primitive forms of the trilith taken along with the 
gateway and its pillar, make this place an excellent locality to 
study the transiti« n from the megalithic monuments to such 
architectural structures as the column and the arch. There 
were, however, places on the Island of Crete and at Knossos, 
which were older than these. The discovery of the shrine, the 
double ax, and identification of the building with the tradi- 
tional labyrinth, connected with the discovery of chambers 
and magazines below the level of the buildings show that the 
earliest palace had existed in the middle of the third milleumn 
B. C; while in the second millenum plaster houses, with win- 
dows of four and six panes, and a street existed at Knossos. 
The windows were filled with oiled parchment, and not glass. 

The .Mycenaean culture goes back to the earlier period, for 
though the remains of a neolithic settlement has been found 
in the vicinity, buildings constructed of enormous limestone 
blocks in the megalithic style were characteristic of the 
Mycenaean homesteads. This kind of a house anticipated the 
Grt ek house of classical times. In all, thirty towns were 
excavated. In twenty- two of them there were megalithic 
walls. The houses were one toryl Hiits were in the mega- 
lithic style, and yet there were stairways' and streets.* 

Mr. J. M. Myers holds that in pre-Mycenaean times the ideal 
Hellenic house consisted mainly of two single rooms — one in 
the rear of the other. On the other- hand, Ernest Gardner 
holds that the primitive Greek house w'as something like the 
Greek house with the court on the inside. 

3. On either side of the Mediterranean Sea in Epirus 
and in the region where Iliuni or Troy once stood, we find the 
remains of structures which evidently belonged to the proto- 
historic age. Schliemann has explored the region and has 

•S«« '*Joanial of Hellenic Sindiet,'' Vol. XXII., x9ot, pafe 505 



ARCHITECTURE IN THE PROTO-HISTORIC AGE. 



97 



brought to light specimens of proto-historic art which lay 
hidden beneath the soil. Among these were copper nails, 
bronze battle axes, lances, gimlets, knives, and brooches, along 
with silver ear rings and gold ornaments. The art itself shows 
an cariy stage of development, but the architecture is more 
snggestive even than the art. The excavations havf revealed 
the architecture of different ages and nations, for no less than 
twelve cities were built up on the same site. The filih layer 
was supposed to be on the site of Troy, and the seventh on 
the site of Greek and Roman Ilium. 

We need not dwell upon these points, for they have been 
discussed over and over again, but if we compare the walls and 
gateways, the stairways, and the various structures which a:e 
found in ruins, we ••hall conclude that here the proto-historic 
age was represented as well as the historic — the lower city be- 
ing prehistoric — and that a complete record is contained in the 
But it may be said of the Beehive tombs and chamber 

lbs and treasure houses of Mycenie, that they properly re- 



^bl 



M^— 5^- H 




present the proto-historic period. The very walls, arches and 
gateways present a style of masonry which is peculiar to that 
period. The Lion Gateway has been often referred to as belong- 
ing to the earliest perioiJ of history. This gateway is nearly 
quadrangular, with a height of lo feet 4 inches, and a width of 
9 feet 10 inches. The gate posts, the threshold, and the lintel 
are great blocks of breccia, showing clearly the marks ol the 
saw by which they were cut out of the quarry. In the sockets 
we see the pivots by which the double gates turned. Above 
the gate, the wall is not built up solid, but the successive 
courses on either side overlap, until they meet in a sort of 
pointed arch, and thus leave a great triangular opening. This 
was the kind of arch which prevailed during the proto historic 
period. There are many localities where it can be seen— at 
Samos, at Fhigclia, at Delos, Mycena;, at Tiiyns, and at 
Ephesus. The main difference between the gate at Mycenae 
lad those mentioned, is, that inside this triangular arch is the 





'^ THE XVKMKMX AXnOjL'AKUK. 

beary pt9 acd liate^ «:tfa Katnes ot tW Im^ i 

tke V.alK. izi k ^■.'.'.u «:ta i. r»de capital becv 

the wzf.'.e Kruci^rt r-^presenu u eariy period ia vckiteaim. 
Tae re^.^nt ^:»<;'>ver:ci ic Kcouos a=<; is Crete nkow tkii there 
was 4 pre-Mycrazar. an and arccitectare ia tk f«ljfi.i« bat 
they lo r.o! rcf-:"; the posiiioa wbich we lake, bnt coafirm it 
It M t/iier.: t=a: ;n Greece the aica had its nrigii for here 
we f.nc zif:*iyi which show the different stages of pragresa 
«bich were made before the secret 
of the aich was learned. In oac 
of these gateways, we see the 
i:oDCs ocar the top projecting be- 
ycnd the line of the abutment, but 
he'd to their piace by the weight of 
the stones above. In another, we 
find the edges of the stones be\-eled 
but comtog to a point at the top, 
giving to the structure the appear- 
ance of an arch. There is. how- 
ever, no true arch to be found ia 
any of these gateways, nor do we 
find the column with the capital 
anywhere in Greece at this time. 
'Ih*- ArrA,\rr'A\ivf. of the time was exactly in the same condition 
.<« tli'^ ^r'.hit'-ciure of Peru and Central America at the time of 
lUr 1)1 ',ov':ry by Columbus. 

^ I tier*: is another widespread district on the east coast 
'if llir Mrrlir';rrancan, which contains a large number of proto- 
liti"'rir '■iru'.turci: somt; of them in Palestine; others in Syria 
^nil I'li'cni' la. ;ind others in Asia Minor, The most interest- 
mi; "f flicrri ar<r f-asl of the Jordan. Here we find rude stone 
rfi"ri<iiii<'iit-,. vi minL,'l':d with proto-historic structures that it is 
'liffi'ult t', fli\1in(;uish between them. A specimen of these 
\i4* \iri\i rrf;rtiily •xhumed from the ancient city of Gezer. 

Ii triay \if <tai[|, Ihat at this place, a succession of structures 
liMv- \i'-ft\ f'lirnd. which .shows that there was a gradual transi- 
tion froin thf liiiil'linfr of rude stone monuments to the erecting 
of \i*i\"H% ari.hitcctiiral works, though progress may have been 
"Wtti(; I'l a (:)inn(;e of the population, rather than the progress 
lA Ihr *.'imf! people. This is made plausible from the fact, that 
'Id til'- ea«t (il ihr Jordan, and to the north of Palestine, there 
nff rii;tiiy tude Hlone monuments which seem to have belonged 
to a different race, and possibly were erected by the old 
iiitlitcs, lliough others have ascribed them to the Indo- 
Kiiro|iriin tm-.f. 

f'rof, .Samiinl Ives Curtis has explored the monuments of 
Syriii and Palestine. Mr. Stewart MacAlister has explored the 
ruins of GeMr. He nays, " Beginning at the bottom, or two 
Jowcnt fltr.ita, it was found that the site was occupied by an 



^ ARCHITECTURE IN THE PROTO-HISTORIC AGE. 

aboriginal, non-Semitic race, of slight build and small stature. 
They lived in caves and rude huts. The cave-dwellers were 
succeeded by a Semitic people, who lived in houses of mud and 
stone, surrounded wilh walls. In ihe fourth stratum, we find a 
'High place,' also megalithic structures, which consist of a 
group of monoliths, fro.n j feet 5 inches lo 10 feet high; a line 
and circular structure 13 feet 18 inches in diameter, consisting 
of a rude wall, now about 16 feet high, with no opening. The 
fifth and sixth straia are the most interesting, for they rc[jre- 
scnt the occupation of Gezer by the Israelites. Bronze is a 
common metal, though flint is still in use and remains of iron 
are found. The bixxU s rata is assigned to the period of the 
Jewish Monarchy, and thesevenih to the Syro Egyptian ptriod 
in the times of Alexander."* 

5. East of the Jordan were many rock-culstructures which 
evidently belonged to the prolo historic period. These have 
been described by Dr. Merrill, (onnerly consul at Jerusalem. 
He quotes the language of Dr. J. G. \Vetzstein: " Here is an 
underground city, a ^ubterrdnean labyrinth. We found our- 
selves in a broad street, which had dwellings on both sides of 
it. Farther alon^;, there were stvi ral cross streets. Soon after 
we came to a market-place, where for a long distance on both 
sides there were numerous shops in the walls. After awhile 
we turned into a side street, whose roof supported by four pil- 
lars, attracted attention. The roof, or ceiling, was formed of 
a single slab of jasper. The rooms, for the most part, had no 
supports, the doors were often made of a single square stone. 
Here, I also noticed fallen columns. The present city, which, 
judging from its walls, must hsvc been one of great extent, 
lies for the mo*t part over the ol-j subterranean city." 

In the same region, Dr. Merrill found some of the finest 
works of irchitcclure. among which may be mentioned the 
Mashita Palace, built about A. D.614; also a Roman road or 
pivemenl which shows the power and extent of the Roman 
Empire. These comparatively modern structures were placed 
amid ruins of Gidara and the t >mbs which belonged to a pre- 
ceding age. These are dug in the limestone rock. All of them 
have doors of basalt On the doors are cirved panels and 
knockers, and bands and bolt head-', showing they belonged to 
the histcric peiiod. Five great fortresses were in sight. 

In fact we may say th*t this land, east of the Jordan, has a 
complete series of structures, which begin with the rude stone 
monuments and end with Che great palaces and temples which 
were built during the palmy days of the Roman Empire, the 
theatres and p.ilaces and temples here present columns which 
have capitals of the Corinthian order. In the same region 
was situated the palace of Zenob'a. ihe Quren, and the ruins of 
Tadmor in the wilderness, showing that the same fate had 




Ur HOUSB IM KASHAN, 



100 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

fallen upon them, that had fallen upon the people who erected 

them. 

Rev. J. L. Porter mentions a huge tower, rising high above 

the battlements and overlooking the plain of Bashan or Bozrah. 

He says: " From it 1 saw that Bozrah w is in ancient times con- 
nected bya series 
of great high- 
ways with lead- 
ing cilic. These 
roads are worthy 
of notice, tor the 
Roman roads 
sh o wed much 
more advance- 
ment in the art 
of road making 
than did the old 
Greek roads, 
which in fact re- 
sembled the old 
tyclopean archi- 
tecture, and have b:en called the cyclopean roads, specimens 

of whi:h have been described by Tsountas in his volume on the 

MyccniEan Age."* 

The rock cut structures in the ciiy of Bashan are in „ 

contrast to the palaces and temples which are standing In rtri 

but which were built 

during the palmy 

days of the Rom'n 

Empire, for these 

palaces and tempits 

present columns 

which have capitals 

of the Corinthian 

order and arches, 

showing that archi- 

tectU'C had reached 

its highest stage of 

development. The 

ruins of Tadmor in 

the wilderness, in 

which are found the 

palace of Zenobia, 

show that a worse 

fate had fal en up n 

them than had fallen u^<on the gia t cities of Bashan, for these 

cities have been preserved exactly as ihey were when they were 

occupied. The very fact that they were cut out of the rock, have 

secured their preservation; while the cities wh.ch were builL 




■■MycBMB A««,''p.<.j6 <i(. 



■I 



THE PROTOHISTORfC AGE. 103 

up by the art of man, above the surface, and contain arches 
and columns and various ornaments, are in comp-et; .uin. The 
theatres are the best preserved, for the scats were ccc out o( 
the rock and insured their security . 

6. Wc turn from this r.-gion to the regi jn. farther north ir. 
Kadesh and Hamath. Carchcmi h and the western bend ol tlf^; '.- 
Euphrates. Here was thd origmal seat and capital of th'e'.- 
Hittites, a people who belonged to ttie pruto-hisloiic period. 
The old sou hern Hittite capital was at Kadesh, though stores 
of Hitliie r. mains have been found in the neighborhood of 
Aintab and Marash. Here, large numbers of Hittite monu- 
^nts, bas reliefs and inscriptions have been found, the remains 

■prehisitoric walls, with them some remarkable Assyrian in- 




acriptioos. These show the Hittite style and form of struc- 
tures, ornamentation and bas reliefs, as well as the pavement* 
•nd stone slabs. The Hittite* were of Mongolian stock. They 
are a mysterious people. They firstappeared about 1600 B.C., 
having invaded Syria and Palestine from the far north. Their 
home was on the Otontes River. The Assyrian art gives us 
many representations of sieges and battles with the Hittite*. 
The Hittite chariots have been depicted upon the monuments, 
and their faces shown. 

7. It is in Phrygia and Lydia thatwe find the most important 
evidence of this little known period. Much information can 
be gained from the study of the rock-cut structures in refer- 
ence to the period in which the people lived in tents, as well 
as the period which followed it, in which framed houses were 
erected. 



I04 THE 'AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



• • 



Here the rdc^^ilt tombs are imitative of the house, and all 
the feature^*6\ eirly ancient house architecture have been pre* 
served.i)f*|^*r^ way, the rock being cut so as to imitate the 
beams% rafters, and doorways, with their jambs and panels. In 
9tli%/ pfaces, even pieces of furniture are imitated, and within 
•**<^He«lbmbs are coucnes for the bodies, cut in solid rock. Even 
.'VCftie roundels bring to mind the door knobs. The mosi interest- 
; * ing of these is the o e at Midas. This has been described by 
* Perrot and Chipiez. The peculiar pattern, seen upon its face, 
is said by them t ) have been an imitation of the drapery and 
the tent cloth which was made by the needle, and other por- 
tions represent the wooden framework. 

The tomb of Midas is, however, no more interesting than 
many • thers found in Phrygia, Lydia, and the regions adjoin- 
ing. Here there are tombs cut out of the rock, in front of 
which are columns built after a pattern with fine gable-ends, 
archer over the doorways built with sloping jambs, and a sun- 
•ymbol over the doorway, as at Ayazeen. Other tombs exhibit 
columns with capital. lesembling the Corinthian, others with a 
porch in front of the chamber, and heavy Doric columns in 
front of the porch. The doors of the tomb are back of the 
porch. Most interesting are those hewn out of the solid rock, 
in front of which is a peculiar sculptured ornament which re- 
presents the tree or the column with a lion on either side, 
resembling the gate at Mycenae. The thought has been 
advanced that the lions which in Babylonia guarded the portals 
of the palace, and were a support to the throne, are here watch- 
ing over the last abode of the prince or grandee, exactly as 
they do over the tomb or treasure-house at Mycenae. 

There were in India many rock-cut structures, some of 
them of nuignificent proportions; a few columns on which were 
carved many ornaments, but with a heavy capital on the col- 
umn. A specimen of the rock-cut temples of India may be 
seen in the plate. This is comparatively modern, but taken in 
connection with the dolmens seen in the first cut, we can real- 
ize the changes which occurred in the architecture of that land, 
and yet the same characteristics were retained. 

In Central America we find many columns arranged in 
clusters along the fa<;ades of these palaces. A few of them had 
capitals in the shape of square blocks, but the most of them 
were cut in the round, with bands in relief in the ceater, mak- 
ing a conventional ornament which was characteristic of the 
region. The conclusion which we draw, after comparing these 
structures of the New World with those of the Old Wodd, is 
that a'-chitecture was here in about the same stage that it was 
in Greece, in Crete, in Cyprus, in Epirus, and at Athens during 
the pre- Mycenaean Age, which belonged to the proto-bistoric 
period. 



AMERICAN ORIGINS. 

BY C. STANILAND WAKE. 

In his great work on the American tribes of the Pacific 
Coast, Mr. H. H, Bancroft mentions that ihe merchants of 
Mexico, 'who hawked their goods from place to place and 
wandered oficn far Into strange countries to buy or sell," and 
who had for their chief deity, and sometimes ^as the only one. 
(he god Giacateciitli, or JacatcuciH. or lyacatecuhtli, that is 
"the pod who guides," otherwise called ■■ Gacacoluihqui, or 
Jacacoluihqui." In a note, Bancroft states that this last name- 
means, according to Torquemada, the " hooknosed, "and he 
adds that " it is curious (;nough that this type of face, so gener- 
ally connected with the Hebrew race, and through them with 
particular astuteness in trade, should be the characteristic of 
Ihe Mexican god of trade." Bancroft says further, that practi- 
cally every merchant reverenced his own staf?— generally made- 
of a solid, knotless piece of black cane, called «to//— as the 
representative or symbol of this god Giacatecullr; kef ping it, 
when not la use. in the oratory or sacred place in his house, 
and invariably pulling food before it, preliminary to eating his 
own meal. When travelimg the traders wtre accustomed! 
nightly to stack up their canes in a convenient position, bind. 
them about, build a fire before them, and then offering blood- 
and copal, pray for preservation and shelter from the many 
perils to which their wandering life made them especially sub- 
ject." Bancroft quotes Sahagun as saying, with reference t» 
the arrival among men of the gods, believed to take place in 
the twelfth Mexican month, "that a day after all the rest of 
the gods, come the god of fire and the god of the merchants^ 
together; they being old and unable to walk as fast as their 
younger divine brethern." The American historian adds in a 
further note, that "the Nahuihecatli, or Natuichecatl, men- 
tioned by the interpreters of the codices as a god honored by 
Ihe merchants, is either some air god, like QuetzalcoatI, or, as 
Sahagun gives it, 'merely the name of a sign.'" 

The reference to the Mexican merchant's staff in the above 
quotation is interesting, as the staff has always been an im- 
portant adjunct of life in the past. There arc various refer- 
ences to it in the Old Testament scriptures, and one especially 
which would ^eem to ihow that it had some peculiar signifi- 
cance. Thus in one of the Psalms it is said, referring to Jehovah. 
"Thy rod and thy staff shall comfort me." The Patriarch 
Jacob is represented as leaning on hii staff when he foretold 
Ihe fortune of his sons, and it was by means of the staff of 
Aaron that many »t the miracles, which led to the release by 



r^- Z':±L .^.-C^-i-O^^t i3Tl«iC 



'.z* Z^r-scin ri^sTUza ir us H-^^irTv £Ate& arc said to have 
r,frtz ytri-.m^z. Tzt »m£ tiaj 12.1s be saSi ic kare become 
ti* -z.iq-c vsSi:. HIT . -^ :r^ 3;il scecLzI sageiScance Iras 
p'-,-i- 7 --i.ir ic iiiTz :rT7 Tie s3ioes: E^Tpcxan vooden 
i-i' -■:■:•.* -: zz-t j.:-ri..fr: * '*" .-i§^ zeacLe" s agL.f ed staCF in 
r.i'Z i:i-:*TT ij * * -TTr-i-n: :f icacc. We learn from 
VtrS-r--. V- l: z LTr-tT: ?__7^ri * ::*r-ccff5or workmen car- 
r.*: i ri :< i* :.T--r Ti ^ i. Tjct i*«c h freely, in ac ord- 
ir :- • :-: :r* z*-: *tz ^lir ri? 1 r-sjit asi ooI%- obe\'S uhcn 
i: • >•*:* :r_T:-i ■■ ■•- r-£7ZC:A:r iriies arc represent c J as 

Ci"-. -r •--: "-i "¥1 :• £ ?.--;r. =i:t*:^er. is ihc band of the 

1: .5 ji : 3> ri.-:r:r:- *• »* ra.e seen, that at aight the 
M*x :i-. :ri:irj siiriz-M .= i^-?lr stives and bound them to- 
g*:r.cr -•i: -i cri>.-:^ :: -.zt-^L Tri* o.ndicg together of the 
s:^ ^s *c.lr :t:i<-^ 2 =.ri •£ 1 k^ :::ir of the Roman fasces. 
Tr.is aiiv -t z:*r£ a=al:-^. z-: r-r.ou* y enough some kind of 
rc!i: -.r.ih:;, z/^'jk'.*- :2c R: 2: ins a- i the Jews, whom Bancroft 
rcr'trs :: :- :: = --;:. :r w::h :2c Mexican traders, is far from 
ifr.pr:,bac.e. T-e R:z:az n-:se was of the Jewish type, and the 
Roxar. chirarttr -aris Ejrh like that of the Jewish people. 
Both a>/<c »ere g:vcr-ti 12 their conduct by an intense pa- 
triotism?.. Djr:n^ the 'cwlsh strjggle for independence under 
the Maccabees. Judas Marcaheus. having heard of the power 
of the Rontans ar.d of their readiness to "make a league of 
ur.ity with all that can^e t : them." sent an embassy to make a 
c jnreC'jracy ari a peace with them. The envoys were favor 
a'-jiy received ar*d the Senate gave them a letter, engraved on 
a ^abi'.'t of brass, as a rr.emotial of peace and confederacy. 
Jonathan, the successor of Judas Maccabeus, wrote seeking the 
alliance of the Lacedaemonians, whose King Areus in his reply, 
claimed kinship for his peop'.e with the Je«s. 

There is no real reason why the people who settled near the 
Tiber and built the town which formed the nucleus of the city 
of Rome, should not have belonged to a common stock with 
the Lacedaemonians and the Jews. The former of these were 
in character not unlike the Romans, and the' description given 
ii\ the latter by Mommsen might be applied with little altera- 
ti')n to the Jewish people. The German historian, in comparing 
;i' d differencing the nature of the Greeks and the Romans, 
refers to "that Roman character, which solemnly bound the 
sriri to reverence the father, the citizen to reverence the ruler, 
and all to reverence the gods; which required nothing and 
honored nothing but the useful act. and compelled every citizen 
to Till up every moment of his brief life with unceasing work, 
which made it a duty, even in the boy, modestly to cover the 
])o(ly; whxh deemed every one a bad citizen who wished to be 
<liff(:rent from his fellow.s: which regarded the state as all in 
all, and a de.sire for the state's existence as the only aspiration 
not liable to censure." Differing from the Greek, *' the Italian 



AMERICAN ORIGIN. v^ 

surrendered his own personal will for the sake of (reedom, aod 
learned to obey his father that he might know how to obey the 
state. Amidst tliis subjection iodividudl development might be 
marred, and the germs of fairest ^^romi^e in man might be 
arrested in the bud; the Italian gaimd in their stead a feetiag 
of fatherland and of paiiiotism. such as the Greek never knew, 
and alone amon;^ a [ the civilized i.ationi of antiquity succeeded 
in working out nationality with a constitution based on self- 
government — a national unity which at last placed in his hands 
the mastery, not only over the divided Hellenic stock, but over 
the whole known world." The intensity of national feeling 
was just as strong among the Jews as it was with the Romans, 
but the conditions under which it developed being different, 
the destiny of these peoples was worked out along different 
lin.s. 

As to the Greeks and Romans. although their national char- 
acters possessed but little in common, this cannot be said of 
their mythological conceptions. Indeed, many of their deities 
were the same, though worshipped under different names. 
Thus the Roman god of trade, Mercury, has been identified 
with the Greek deity. Hermes, the guardian of boundaries and 
the protector of the produce of the fields. The latter also be- 
came, as was Mercury, the god of wealth and traflic, and fhe 
patron god of traders. Mercury is usually represented with 
wings on his feet, and as carrying the caduccus. He wa» evi- 
dently an air god. such as Bancroft supposes the Mexican god 
honored by the merchants lo have been. This was probably, 
however, a separate aspect of the god of the traders, corre- 
sponding, perhaps, to the difference between Mercury and the 
Hermcan pillar god, who is sometimes identified with the 
Roman boundary go 1 Terminus. The Mexican legend said 
that the god of the merchants and the god of fire were the last 
to arrive during the twelfth month, because they were old and 
unable to walk as fast as their younger divine brethern. This 
may mean that these two gods were late comers into the pan- 
theon, being foreign gods, or it may have referred to a pecu- 
liarity which is mentioned in connection with the gods of 
Western Asia in particular. These gods were often fastened 
with chains lo prevent their leaving their temples, and were 
thus as incapable of travelling fast, as was the Hermean god, 
who was planted in the fields. Curiously enough, sacred stone 
pillars of a similar character are to be found in the American 
continent, as will be mentioned later on. 

It is remarked by Professor Frederich Ratzel, in relation to 
the civilization of Mexico and Peru, that "the analogies are to 
be sought rather in the conquering and predatory slates of 
ancient Western Asia, than in the more peaceful f^ast Asiatic 
communities." With a slight modification, this conclusion may 
be accepted as stating the truth. Many things that have been 
referred to from time to time as evidencing Chinese or Japanese 



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AMERICAN ORIGIN. 

can look for an answer only in the West; and this pushes the 
origin of this so-called peculiar civilization nearer to the roots 
of that of Wcstsrn Asia." 

In seeking for the Asiatic area from which the pre-Colum- 
bian culture of America may have been derived, we must also 
look 10 the western rathtr than to the eastern portion of that 
area. Certain facts which have been brought to light from time 
to lime confirm this conclusion. Such is the similarity between 
the upright stones, usually highly sculptured, found in Central 
America, to the pillar stones of ancient Babylonia, which are 
analogous to the Grecian Hermes pillars. In referring to this 
subject, Mr. Bancroft remarks; "The sculptured pillars to be 
seen at Copan and other ruins of Central America, which are 
acknowledged to be connected with sun worship, are v<ry 
similiar to the sculptured phallus-pillars of the East." Squier 
was also of this opinion, and he cites Skinner as stating that in 
Peru rough stones, set up in the fields and plantations, wer; 
worshipped as protectors of the crops. In Mexico, the pre- 
siding god of Spring wa-f. according to Goma, as quoted by 
Bancroft, "often represented without a human body, and in 
place thereof, a pilaster or square column, upon a pedestal or 
base carved with various sculptures." 

Tiie Babylonian or Chaldean influence, thus supposed to 
account for the pillar stones of Central America, may also be 
called in to explain why the serpent superstition had so strong 
a hold on the ancient American people. Babylon was at one 
time the great centre of serpent worship in Asia, and it is not 
improbable that the Dragon and the Naga cults of China and 
India were directly, or indirectly, derived from that source. 
The ascription of a Chaldean origin for American serpent wor- 
ship would carry with it serious consequences, for the serpent 
was the great symbol of wisdom, and we can hardly doubt that 
the introduction of its cidt would be attended with that of the 
general civilization of the people from whom it was obtained. 
This people need not have been, however, actually Babylonian. 
Although so-called Chaldeans at a comparatively late date over- 
ran the Western world, carrying with them the superstitious 
ideas and occult practices for which old Babylon was famed, 
they were not the first to spread abroad the Chaldean civiliza- 
tion. This was done at an earlier period by ihe Phoenicians, a 
people about whom little is known beyond the fact, that they 
were not only great builders, but also the greatest seafarers of 
antiguity. The Phcenician cities of Philistia were longthe chief 
tiading centres of the ancient world, and their African colonies 
cont nded with Rome, not only for the empire of the seas but, 
it might almost be said, for the empire of the world. When 
the Egyptian Pharaoh wished to know the real extent of the 
land now known as the African continent, he employed the 
Phoenicians to obtain the required information. The story of 
their great discovery, as given by Herodotus, ia as follows: "As 



110 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

for Libya [Africa], we know it to be washed on all sides by the 
sea, except where it is attached to Asia. This discovery was 
made by Nekos, the Egyptian king, who, on desisting from the 
canal which he had begun between the Nile and the Arabian 
Gulf, sent to sea a number of ships manned by Phoenicians, 
with orders to make for the Pillars of Hercules, and return to 
Egypt through them and by the Northern Sea [Mediterranean]. 
The Phoenicians took their departure from Egypt by way of 
the Erythrean Sea, and so sailed into the Southern Ocean. 
When autumn came they went ashore wherever they might 
happen to be, and having seen a tract of land, with corn, 
waited until the grain was fit to cut. Having reaped it, they 
again set sail; and thus it came to pass that two whole years 
passed by, and it was not until the third year that they doubled 
the Pillars of Hercules and made good their voyage home. 
On their return they declared — I for my part do not believe 
it — that on sailing they had the sun upon their right hand. In 
this way was the extent of Libya discovered." 

The great extent of the African continent having been 
ascertained, it is extremely improbable that the discovery 
would not be utilized. That the Phoenicians, or some race akin 
to them, did in fact make prolonged visits to South Africa is 

f roved by the ruined buildings that still exist in Mashonaland. 
robably the people who erected these buildings were in 
search of gold, and if the Phoenicians were not the actual 
workers, they were doubtless the navigators and traders en- 
gaged in the pursuit. The Phoenicians are known to have 
voyaged to the British Islands to obtain the tin so essential to 
the making of bronze. Judging from some of the existing 
place names on the Cornish coast, it is probable that either 
they, or Hebrews who accompanied them, actually worked the 
tin mines in that locality. Seamen who were capable of cir- 
cumnavigating Africa and reaching the British Islands, need 
not have had much difficulty in crossing the Atlantic Ocean, 
particularly, if their is any truth in the old Egyptian story of 
Atlantis, although this was no more necessary for such a voy- 
age, than it was to that of Columbus. The use of bronze by 
the civilizsd peoples of the American continent in pre-Colum- 
bian times has been ascertained, and may they not have been 
indebted to the Phoenicians, either for the bronze itself, or for 
the tin employed in its making? Ratzelsays: "We do not 
know whence these people got their tin, but it is certain that 
they used vessels and implements of soft bronze, containing 
tin in the proportion of 4 to 10 per cent. Chisel-like blades 
with semicircular edge, axes, crescent shaped pbqrcs for 
adorning the head or the nose, and hair pins made of a similar 
alloy, are found both in Mexico and Peru." The German 
writer adds, that '* in South America, Chimu is the region rich- 
est in bronze, as might, indeed, be inferred from the old reports 
of Ciega de Leon. In and about Chimu, bronze weapons and 



^^^^^" AMERICAN ORIGIN. iii 

uteosils are found in such quantities that they were sold by the 
ton. Celts, just like those of Europe, and ornamental bronze 
shovels, were depicted by Squier. As in Peru, the bronze 
knives had a crescent-shaped edge, and the handle in the mid- 
dle; the same pattern occurs among the Asaitic races, and is 
an obsolete form in Indonesia." 

The copper money used in Mexico and Central America, as 
figured by Bancroft, had the form of the bronze knives of 
Peru here referred to. Along the northwest coast of the 
Northern continent ■'coppers" showing an analogous but 
modified form have a peculiar character. Dr. Franz Boas, in 
his valuable account of the Kwakiutl of British Columbia, re- 
fers to the use all along the North Pacific Coast, from Yakutat 
to Comon, of curiously shaped copper plates, the lower part of 
which has a vertical and a horizontal ridge forming the tau pat- 
tern, and the upper part is covered on one side with black lead, 
in which the face of the crest animal of the owner is engraved. 
Dr. Boas remarks further: '"These coppers have the same 
function which bank notes of high denomination have with iis. 
The actual value of the copper is small, but it is made to repre- 
sent a large number of blankets and can always be sold for 
blankets. The value is not arbitrarily set, but depends upon 
the amount of property given away in the festival at which the 
copper is sold. On the whole, the oftener a copper is sold the 
higher its value, as every new buyer tries to invest more 
blankets in it. Therefore the purchase ol a copper always 
brings distinction, because it proves that the buyer is able to 
bring together a vast amount of property," The breaking of 
a valuable copper is a means taken to bring loss on a rival 
chief. The breaker of the copper gives the pieces to his rival, 
who. if he wants to maintain his prestige, "must break a cop- 

Eer of equal or higher value, and then return both his own 
roken copper and the fragments which he has received to his 
rival. The latter may pay (or the copper which he has thus 
received. The copper is broken in pieces until there remains 
only the tow-shaped ridge piece, which is valued at two-thirds 
of the total value of the copper and is the la.it to be given 
away. '"Coppers, like other property, may be destroyed for the 
sole purpose ot gaining distinction. Sometimes they weie 
buried under house posts or totem posts, instead of slave-.. 
The property thus disposed of is called the price paid for the 
house or post. This custom has also reference, probably, to 
the belief that good luck will attend the structure, and, accord- 
ing to Mr. James Deans, among the Haida of Queen CharloUe 
Islands the idea of good luck is associated with the copper Wn. 
Id fact, Mr. Deans affirms that not only do the Haida attach to 
it that idea, but they apply to it the name tau, which we know 
was applied by the Phcenicians to the alphabetic character of 
that form, and was used by them as a sign of good fortune^ 



112 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

It srems impossible to account for these facts without re- 
ference to the influence of the Old World nations, whether the 
Phoenicians or some other Asiatic people were the dissemina* 
^ors of them.* If so, then the Eastern origin claimed for 
Votan and other hero gods of Central America gains in prob- 
ability. Bancroft, after stating that a comparison of the differ- 
ent traditions held by the natives admits of two such person- 
ages, Votan and Quetzalcoatl, adds: **It is certain, however, 
that from them, whether heros, priests, rulers or warriors, 
Central America received the culture which their successors 
brought to such perfection. The knowledge of one supreme 
king appears to have been among the first dogmas instilled into 
t le minds of their people; but in the tradition presented to us, 
the hero's name is often confounded with that of the divinities. 
Like Quetzalcoatl, Votan was the first historian of his people, 
and wrote a book on the origin of the race, in which he de- 
clares himself a snake, a descendant of Imos, of the line of 
Chan, of the race of Chivim. One of his titles was 'Lord of 
the Hollow Tree.'" Bancroft further remarks: •* From the 
contused tradition of the Tz ndals, as rendered by Nufttrz de 
1 1 Vega and Ordofiez y Aquiar, it seems that Votan proceed* d 
by divine command to America, and then portioned out the 
land. He accordinpjly departed from Valum Chivim, passed 
•by the ' dwelling of the thirteen snakes,' and arrived in Valum 
Vatan, where he took with hi.n several of his family, to form 
the nucleus of the settlement. With them he passed through 
the island-strtwn Laguna de Terminos, ascended the U uma- 
enter, and here, on one of its tributaries founded Nachan or 
Palenque, the future metropolis of a mightly kingdom, and one 
of the reputed cradles of American civilization. The 1 zendal 
inhabitants bestowed upon the strange-looking new-comers the 
name Tzequiles, * men with petticoats,' on account of their long 
robes, but soon exchanged ideas and customs with them, sub- 
mitted to their rule, and gave them their daughters in marriage. 
This event is laid a thousand >ears before Chiist." 

The statement that Votan claimed to be a snake is de- 
serving of consideration. The ri>e of Buddhism is supposed 
to have taktn place among the serpent worshippers of North- 
ern India, and according to a Hindu legend, Gautama had a 
serpent line. ge. The Nagas are the possessors of the secret 
wisdom, and although they are spoken of as serpents, it is 
probable that this was merely the totem name of a race in 
•Central Asia, who claimed to have occultic power. This race 
would seem to have promulgated their cult through ut nearly 
the whole of the Old Woild, and it is not improbable that the 
snakes Votan and Quetzalroatl of American tradition belonged 
to it. Dr. Brinton objects to the identification, proposed by 
M. de Charencey, of the name Votan with Woden, or Buddha, 

* May not the presence of R< mnn coirt which been found fram tfir.« to time in rarioa 
parts of the Northwestern states be thus explained? 



AMERICAN ORIGIN. 



"3 



and it is not necessary to in ist on it, although the meanings of 
the three names are much allied. 

There is another feature of the Votan and Quetzalcoatl 
tradition, which should not be overlooked. It is the associa- 
tion of these culture heroes with caves. The disciples of 
Quetzalcoatl preached his doctrines in Oajaca and here, amidst 
(he mountains, " in a cave, the interior of which was filled with 
idob, set up in niches upon stones dyed with human blood and 
smoke of incense, was a large transparent chalciuite, entwined 
by a snake, whose head pointed toward a little bird perched on 
the apex." This relic was worshipped under the name of "the 
heart of the people," r.nd had. says Bancroft, all ihe chief at- 
tributes of Quei7,alcoatl, Ihe stone, the snake, and the bird. 
In other places, also, cave temples were dedicated to Ihe wor- 
ship of this god. The name Votan is said to mean "heart," 
and this hero god had a temple, called "house of darkness" 
from iis subterranean chambers, where the records of the na- 
tion were deposited under the charge of a fixed number of old 
men. termed Tlapianes. or guardians, and an order of priest- 
esses, whose superior was likewise the head of the male mem- 
bers. Here were also kept a number of tapirs,* a sacred 
animal among the people. According to one account, Votan 
made several visits to his former home. On one of these, he 
was allowed to penetrate by a subterranean passage to the 
root of heaven. This reminds us of the "foot of heaven," of 
Dtnnf myth, where, says Petitot, was an immense cave from 
which flowed a river, and which appears to have been the home 
of departed souls. The cave deity of .\s.\a, par fxa-ilctiee, was 
Mithra, the I'ersian god of light, whose worship was propogatcd 
among the Habylonian*. and afierwards among the Romans, 
whose soldiers carried it throughout Europe as far as the em- 
pire extended. Various reasons might be assigned for believing 
that many of the ideas embodied in the Mi thraic cult, or in the 
earlier form of the Zoroastrian religion, have been retained by 
the native tribes of North America. The description of Votan 
given by Brasseur de Bourbourg would answer well for the 
Persian Mithra, confounded with his great high priest Zoroaster. 
He says, as cited by Bancroft, "At time he seems to be a 
mythic creation, the mediator between man and God, the re- 

Rrcscntation of wisdom and power; at times a prince and a 
igislator, who introduced a higher culture among his people." 
The first exploit Mithra, as a hero, performed was to conquer 
Ihe sun, and curiously enough the founder of the Miztec royal 
family, who were followers of Quetzalcoatl, was credited with 
a similar exploit. The Persian god of light was ever in con- 
flict with the god of darkness, and a similar opposition snb- 
sistrd between the hero gods of America and other deities by 
whom they were, temporarily at leait, overcome. 



114 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

The three chief attributes ascribed to Quetzalcoail, above 
referred to, may also be considered as belonging to the Persian 
deity. In the earliest form, this deity is represented as being 
born from a rock, which laier becomes a cave, in each case, 
probably meaning ihe earth. In the stone tablets so widely 
spread throughout the Roman world, in which Mithra is repre- 
sented Bs slaying the primeval bull, the raven, who is the mes- 
senger ol the sun is always figured as viewing the scene. 
Sometimes the god is figured as entwined by a serpent, which 
probably is symbolical of eternity Heie we have, no doubt, 
the influence of Chaldean ideas, which are supposed also to 
hsve led to the identihcaiion of Mithra with the Sun god. and 
to the introduction on his monuments of the signs of the zodiac. 
There is no reason why Asiatic ideas may not have been trans- 
milted to the American continent by more than one agency, 
and it is quite possible that, while the so-called Red Indians of 
North America received such ideas from the Northwest, the 
Central Americans and allied people received similar ideas, 
somewhat modified, from the Kasi; in the latter case, the 
Phcenicians having been the agents through whom they were 
obtained. In confirmation of the latter action, reference may 
be made to the Votive Tablet, dedicated to the Lady Tanit- 
Gene- Baal and the Lord Baal- Ham mon, found at Carthage, the 
great Afro-Phtenician rival of Rome. Dr. Paul Cams, the 
editor of The Open Court, which gives a reproduction of the 
tablet in its issue for January, 1904, in describing the tablet 
remarks, that underneath the dedicatory inscription "is a 
peculiar religious symbol which, according to some archaeol- 
ogists, takes the place of the Egyptian ' key of life." On either 
side, hovers a dove, the bird sacred to Astatte. Above Ihe in 
scription we can see Astarte, the lady of Ihe countenance of 
Baal, holding in her hand the symbol of her divinity, a disc 
within a crescent. . . The goddess appears in the shape 
which later on Christian artists gave to angels; the arch above 
htr represents Ihe heavens; on either side stands a pillar. 
which here assumes the >hape of a shepherd's crook. On the 
top of the slab appears a hand, symbolizing Providence, the 
dispensation of Baal-Harmon (Ihe Phtenician name for the 
Egyptian Ammon), the supreme god and ruler of the universe. 
corresponding to the Christian God the Father, and it is nnte- 
worthy that the symbol of the outstretched har.d, also used as 
an emblem on the top of Roman standards, remained a sym- 
bol of Providence among Christian artists almost down to the 
present day." There are several figures on the tablet which 
are not unknown to native cult, but 1 will refer particularly only 
to the hand which surmounts the tablet. In Yucatan the red 
hand is often found impressed on buildings, and is known as 
the Working Hand. The same thing occurs in connection with 
the ruined buildings at Tusayan. 

Finally, allusion may be made to the symbol of the winged 



AMERICAN ORIGIN. 



"5 



globe, or circle, used by the ancient Egyptians. This appears 
to represent the sun, and an ornament of a similar character 
was found by Stephens and Catherwood at Ocociago, about 
forty miles from PalenquS, a restitution of it being figured by 
Waldeck. In the Assyrian form of the winged globe, the 
figure of the sun god is seen within the circle. Among the 
sculptured casts made by M. Dcsir^ Charnay in Central 
America are two slabs on which a man is represented as wor- 
shipping the sun god, who is figured ai a man up above in the 
sky. In one case the god is shown encircled by a disc. 

In conclusion, I may quote from Squier a remark as to 
American origins made by Alexander von Humboldt,|although 
it may seem to clash somewhat with the views above expressed. 
The German philosopher remarks: " How rash to point out the 
group of nations on the Old World continent to which the 
Toltecs, Aztecs, Minyscos and Peruvians present the nearest 
analogies; since these analogies are apparent in the traditions, 
the monuments and the customs which, perhaps, preceded the 
present division of Asiatics into Chinese, Hindus and Mongols." 
Humboldt here refers, probably, to the notion that mankind 
originated in Central Asia. Now, whether this notion is trueior 
not, the conclusion I have desired toimprcss, is that early Ameri' 
can culture was derived from the Asiatic stock to which the 
caily Babylonians, who probably originated in Centra! Asia, 
belonged, or from the Phcenicians, who appear to have been 
intermediaries between Asia and the Western world. It is far 
from improbable that both these agencies have been at work, 
and that one was due to great movements" of peoples, who 
spread in successive waves from Central Asia throughout the 
whole Northern hemispere, and the other was operated by 
water, the Phcenicians being not only great builders on land, 
but also the most noted sailors and explorers by sea of the 
ancient world. 

■Such a movement, which occurred in the Iwelfth century under the 
great conqueror Koblai-Khan. is referred to by Father Petitot in his 
"Hoiiogrflpbie des DeneDindjiS." This author stales thai originally he 
regardrd the American Indians as autochihenouf, but ihat he charged his 
opinion as the result of his experiences and researches during ten ;ears 
•pent among the Dtnt-Dindjie. whom he became convinced were derived 
from Asia. 




ANTHROPOLOGY AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 

African Pygmies. 

Plans have been completed for assembling, either in the 
Department of Anthropology or elsewhere, representatives of 
all the world's races, ranging from smallest pygmies to the 
most gigantic peoples, from the darkest blacks to the domi- 
nant whites, and from the lowest known culture (the dawn of 
the Stone Age) to its highest culmination in that Age of 
Metal, which, as the Exposition shows, is now maturing in the 
Age of Power. 

Through the energetic co-operation of Rev. S. P. Verner, 
President of Stillman Institute (Tuskaloosa, Alabama), a 
group of Batwa Pygmies from Central Airica will be installed 
to form part of the out-door exhibit of this section. Sinc*5 the 
time of Herodotus the existence of African Pygmies has been 
known, though it was only a few years ago that they were re- 
discovered by Du Chaillu, Schweinfurth and Stanley. The 
studies of Mr. Verner and others have shown that the little 
people are really the aborigines of the Dark Continent, of 
which the greater portion have been displaced by full-size 
tribes. Practically nothing is known of the language, laws, or 
beliefs of the Pygmies, though travelers tell that they are 
skillful hunters, slaying the lion and the elephant, and even the 
rhinoceros and hippopotamus, with poisoned darts. But two 
or three Pygmies have ever left their native ranges; none have 
hitherto crossed the Atlantic to the western hemisphere. Mr. 
Verner's expedition has the favor of His Majesty, King Leopold 
of Belgium. 

Patagonian Giants. 

The Head Man of the Tehuelche tribe is to visit the Expo* 
sition with his wife, daughter, son-in-law and grandchildren, 
and one or two other families of the tribe. Since the time of 
Magellan these Indians have been known as Patagonian Giants; 
so far as measurements have been made, their mean stature 
exceeds that of any other known people save, probably, the 
Seri Indians of Northwestern Mexico. The Tehuelche family 
occupies a skin house or toldo, they subsist partly on sea food, 
partly on spoil of the inland chase; the men are skillful in nav- 
igating large canoes containing fires for warmth and cooking; 
in the chase they depend chiefly on the bolas — a triple thong 
loaded with stone weight at the ends — which is thrown a great 
distance to entangle the quarry. It is planned to exhibit the 
family groups with their appurtenances, including one or two 
toldos and nreplace-canoes, on the shores of Arrowhead Lake 



adjacent to the African Pygmies and the ethnologic display 
from the Philippine!. 

Aboriginal Groups. 

Arrangements are well advanced for placing family groups 
representing various other primitive peoples on the grounds 
of the department. Among these are the Ainu tribe of the 
Island ot Hokkaido (Northern Japan), representing the abo- 
rigines of the Japanese Empire, and illustrating in their occu- 
pations and handiwork some of the mos*. signihcant stages in 
industrial development known to students— germs of some of 
those material arts which in their peifection have raised Japan 
to leading rank among the world's nations; the Cocopa 
Indians, from the Lower Colorado, a tribe still cultivating 
aboriginal crops by aboriginal methods, and whose men ate of 
stature equal to the Patagonians, Ihough the women are shorter; 
the Seri Indians, of Tiburton Island, northwestern Mexico, 
probably the most gigantic tribe extant, whose culture is so 
low that they may be classed as just entering the Stone Age; 
the " Red Negroes" of Central Africa, represented by Chief 
Ndombe and liis court, occupying the upper Kasai Valley and 
forming an ethnic strain and social class not yet studied by 
scientists; and about a score of the aboriginal tribes still sur- 
viving in the United States. These will include one or two 
Pueblo groups, occupying structures modeled after porrions of 
their native pueblos; Plains tribes, with their tipis. shields and 
other insignia so arranged as to express social organization; 
basket makers from northern California an; central Arizonia; 
blanket weavers, potters, skin dressers, bead workers, copper 
sbapers, arrow makers, and other native artisans pursuing their 
craft a cording to the ways of their ancestors in pre-Columbian 
times. The several groups will typify aboriginal life; and both 
special students ano general visitors v, ill find in them an index 
to the inner life of the Red Race, whose rise and passing, form 
the opening epic of American history. Several groups will 
cluster about notable figures; Chief Joseph, of the Nez Perct 
tribe, one of the ablest leaders ever sprung from American 
soil; the Apache chief, Geronimo, with his band, who with- 
stood the United Stales army for years; the stalely Kiowa 
chief, Quanah Parker — these are among the native personages 
who have signified their intention of attending the Exposition 
and participating in the work of the department. 

Some of the aboriginal groups (especially those from the 
Pueblo region) will be sufficiently large to permit adequate 
display, not only of the collective industries and games, but 
of the ceremonial life of the tribes. After much consideration 
in the Indian Bureau, it has been decided, on the recommenda- 
tion of Superintendent McCowan, that the best possible Indian 
exhibit will be one in conjunction with a model Indian school; 
and furthermore, that the only satisfactory exhibit of Indian 



118 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

life must be one in which the natives conform to their custom- 
ary habits and observances in every particular. Accordingly, 
set games will be played and formal ceremonies performed, not 
in a spectacular way, but at the times and seasons fixed by im- 
memorial custoni; so the studious visitor will enjoy, on the 
ExposiMon grounds, opportunities for arcurate study hardly 
less useful than those hitherto available only through weeks or 
months of life in Indian settlements. The industries, too, will 
be normal, and visitors will be enabled to obtain as souvenirs 
or specimens for scientific study, objects of Indian handiwork 
proJuced by native methods under their own inspection. 
These will include blankets and woven belts; vases or ollas, 
plain and decorated; baskets for cooking and other purposes; 
native metal work in silver and copper; moccasins, medicine 
bags and other articles of dressed skin; feather work and bead 
work in bone, shell and porcupine quills; bows, arrows and 
quivers, with arrow points of stone, bone and antler; fire drills, 
etc. The transitional phase of aboriginal life will be illustrated 
by a typical sutlery, or trading post, through which most of 
the tribal groups will obtain supplies. 

SfXTION of ARCHiEOLOGY. 

The collections exhibited in this section will be installed in 
the permanent fireproof structure known as the Anthropology 
Building. The greater part of the exhibits are contributed by 
countries and States. From Mexico — the land of the Aztec 
and seat of the highest native advancement in North 
America — comes a remarkable collection, including originals 
and reproductions of her most striking relics; carved idols of 
stone and wood and decorated figurines of fictile ware; obsidian 
cores and blades, the latter so excellent as to serve for surgical 
instruments or razors; calendar stones and other calendric in- 
scriptions; native hieroglyphic books on maguey paper; primi- 
tive sunbursts of polished obsidim and pyrite; amulets and 
esoteric emblems of beaten and semi-fused gold; sculptures 
and portrait mouldmgs representing personages of Mexico's 
unwritten history — these are some of the contributions taken 
from the Museo Nacional and other repositories in the inter- 
ests of the Exposition. A unique feature of the display will be 
a full-size reproduction of a portion of the ancient city of Mitla. 

From Egypt come collections befitting the Land of the 
Lotus, in which civilization found its earliest germ; an entire 
tomb, mummies and mummy cases of royal personages and of 
the deified cat, with scarabs and other sacramental symbols of 
an early cult, are among the objects now on the way trom 
Cairo. Egypt is the world's treasure-house of antiquities, and 
from these the finest and m jst typical have been chosen to tell 
the tale of her rise and the decline of her dynasties. These 
will include restorations in miniature of some of the most 
notable sites, so wrought as faithfully to reproduce the original 



ARCHEOLOGY AT THE EXPOSinON. 119 

cbaractcr. France sends a colleciion of rare relics designed to 
illustrate the development of prehistoric man from his advent 
in tertiary times up to his entrance into the Bronie Age, as 
traced by her eminent archicologists; the clipped dints ascribed 
(o the Ancient River Men being given prominence. 

Under a sp;cial State appropriation, Ohio contributes a rich 
collection ot relics left by the mound-building Indians, who 
inhabited the fertile valleys of the Ohio and the Mississippi up 
lo ihe times of D Soto and La Salle. The exhibit will com- 
prise map models of the Great Serpent Mound, the remark- 
able circular earthwork of the Miami Valley, and other repro- 
ductions, as well as a rich colllection ( from the Museum ol the 
State University) of stone implements and weapons, bone fish- 
hooks and needles, copper gorgets and knives, and other arti- 
facts recording the industrial life of one of the most advanced 
native populations of our present territory. Several other 
ootable collections are in preparation by institutions and indi- 
viduals; the foregoing are representative of the whole. 

In addition lo the special collections, plans are underway 
lor exhibiting a number of what may be called synthetic series 
illustrating tl.c greatest among the early advances of mankind. 
Perhaps the initial step in human progress was the conquest of 
fire, since man is essentially the fire making animal; and this 
step will be illustrated by a series of devices running from the 
6re-drill and fire-pump representing the stage in which fire — 
the Red Flower of the East Indian lore — was thought an ani- 
maie deity and its production a vital process, through pyrile 
(or fire-stone) apparatus to the flint and steel and tinder box, 
and thence to the sulphur stick and phosphoros match stand- 
ing for the stage in which fire is recognized as a chemical 
process. Scarcely less important was the development 01 the 
knife, which will be illustrated by prehistoric relics and primi- 
tive artifacts, ranging from the emblematic tooth and talon of 
lowest savagery through Ihe sharp edges of shell jnd bamboo 
stem to the blade of wood and chipped or flaked stone, and 
thence to cold-hammered copper and meteoric iron, and on fo 
the stage of hot forging with the alloying and smelting of 
modern metallurgy; for although the way was long from tooth 
of deified beast as a symbol of supremacy to the jeweled 
sword as an emblem of militant power, its course may be 
shown in a few score specimens properly arranged and labeled. 

Another marker of human progress was the evolution of the 
wheel — the basis of all modern mechanics — which is easily re- 
presented by a series of objects from its beginning as a divin- 
atory or gaming device through its faith-inspired u^e as a 
roller under heavy beams and sones, up to its emploj ment in 
primitive vehicles when animals were domesticated, and thence 
to its incorporation in machines as a transmitter of power — 
indeed, the Exposition grounds will reveal every stage in the 
evolution of the wheel, from the pole and ring game of the 



A MICHIGAN EARTH-WORK AND IT^ IMPENDING 

LOSS. 

BY HARLAN I. SMITH. 

A prehistoric earth-work in Ogemaw County, Michigan, is 
in danger of being destroyed. The land on which it is located 
should be purchased and made into a public park, under the 
supervision ot the State or some permanent society. A law 
could then easily be passed to exempt from taxation parks en- 
closing prehistoric works, and not held for profit. 

This earth-work surrounds a nearly circular area, about 200 
feet in diameter. The embankment is over two feet in height. 
Outside of it is a ditch over two feet deep, from which the 
earth may have been taken to form the wall. There are three 
openings in the embankment with corresponding interruptions 
in the ditch. These weie probably entrances to the fort. 

The earth-work is located in a lumbered tract of wild land 
within four miles south and west of West Branch, Ogemaw 
County, Michigan; it is a short distance (about one-quarter 
mile) north of the house of Mr. James Rabidue, and appears 
to extend across the section line, and \o lay in both the south- 
east of the northeast of Section 33, and the southwest of the 
northwest of Section 34, both of Town 22, north of Range i 

east. 

A logger's road about six feet wide, winding through the 
country crosses the embankments and reduces them somewhat. 
The ditch has been filled with logs where the road crosses, the 
road being narrow has damaged only a slight part of the entire 
work. 

When I visited the place in 1901. men were at work between 
the embankment and Mr. Rabidue's house. They h;^d begun 
a slashing^ for the township road which would replace the log- 
ger's trail, and was to run on the north and south section line. 
Sighting along this irregular slashing, the line appears to cross 
about the middle of the earth-work. It is probable that the 
road will be, or has now been, built nearly on the line, but that 
only a single track, without ditches, will be made at pres. nt. 
leaving a full-wi<Uh graded road for sime years in the future. 
A single track will only d« uble, at most, the destruction begun 
by the logger's road, an*! it may cross in the same tracks, in 
which case thire would be no mo e damage; but a regular four- 
rod graded road with ditches, crossing the earth-work would 
practicallv ruin it. • 

In case this road has now been built and the earth-work 
destroyed, the purchase of this site for a park would no longer 
be desirable, if one of the four similar earth-works, some miles 
east of West Branch, along the Rifle River, maybe secured for 
a reasonable sum. It would be well to do this now, rather than 
to wait until danger threatens it. Living at a distance, the 



122 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

friends of science are not apt to learn of such danger until too 
late, as is even now pos ibly the case with reference to the 
earth-work near Mr. Rabidue's place The land on Sections 
33 and 34 is, perhaps, worth about {10 an acre, and the earth- 
work may be on one acre, or at most, only four; the owner* 
ho^xever, may not care to sell less than ten or even forty acres 
in a piece, and it may lie on the land of one or even four 
owners. It is probably, however, on the land of the Gale 
Lumber Company, which would doubtless sell in as small a 
paicel as was desired, if informed that the use for which the 
land was desired was to make a public park in order to save the 
eirihwork. 

Some one interested in Michigan's future, should buy the 
land, say two or three acres, upon which the earth-work is 
situated and set the place aside as a public park, before the 
graded road is completed. Such has been done in Ohio for 
the Great Serpent Mound and Fort Ancient, and the Ohio 
Legislature passed a bill relating to any land on which a pre- 
historic work is located and not held for profit, exempting the 
same from taxation. This law' is mentioned on page 873 of 
the Century Magazine of April, 1890. If such a bill were en- 
acted in Michigan, perhaps some one could be persuaded to 
purchase and set aside as parks the lands on which one of each 
of the pre-historic earth-works, peculiar to, and characteristic 
of Michigan, are located. 

If this site is purchased, a road may be made to pass at one 
side of the work, or may bi divided and be built on each side 
of it. The rubbish in. the ditch can be taken out and the place 
fenced. Some farmer near by might be engaged as a care- 
taker, in return for the use ot the park as pasturage. The line 
dividing the hard from the soft timber passes within a few 
hundred feet of the place, and this makes it interesting to 
foresters, botanists and zoologists. 

The title of the park should be placed in the Detroit Branch 
of the Archaeological Institute of America, the State Univer- 
sity, the Pioneer and His'orical Society, or some other public 
Michigan institution. 

HUMAN BONES FOUND NEAR GALVESTON. 
A Letter Communicated by Mr. James Douglas. 

[Printed in the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, D«c«mbM', Z903 ] 

Dk. James Douglas, President, October 12, 1903. 

El Paso & Southwestern R. R. Co. 

Dear Sir : Complying with your request to furnish you the 
dati relative to the human bones found in the ballast pits of 
the Galveston, La Porte & Houston Ry. (now part of Southern 
Pdcific) near Galveston, Texas, I beg to say: 

The ballast pits are situated at the mouth of Clear Creek, 



HUMAN BONES FOUND NEAR GALVESTON. 



"3 



thirty-two miles southeast of Houston, Texai, and 
twenty-five miles from Galveston, and lie between the creek 
and the bay. Originally they coveted about twenty acres, and 
rose to an elevation of eighteen or Twenty feet above mean 
low tide. The deposit consisted of about 50 per cent, shell of 
varii'us kinds, oyster, clam. etc.. 40 per cent, gravel, and 10 per 
cent, coarse -and. The whole deposit was coveted with about 
eight inches of soil, and had a dense growth of live-oak trees, 
some of which seemed very old. The deposit was in seven 
distinct strata, averaging about 23-i feet in thickness, with about 
two inches of black larth between. 

AM the strata were very much the same, except the bottom 
one and the second one from the top. These two had very 
little gravel in Ehem, and consisted of oyster shells (larger 
than in trie other strata) and black earth, and it was in these 
two " veins " that we found the human bones, one " layer " of 
bones a little over three feet below the surface, and the other 
at sea level about twenty feet below the surface. 

We found very few bones in the upper stratum — probably 
ten per cent of the whole — the greater majority being at about 
the present sea level 

No accurate count of the total number found was kept, but 
over fifteen hundred were actually tallied, and a conservative 
estimate would be five thousand. 

At first the gravel was loaded by hand, and during this 
period the foreman counted the skulls, but, later on, a steam 
sbovel was put to work, and after that no count was attempted, 
though the bones were uncovered daily until the entire pit was 
worked out. 

We usually found two or more skeletons together, and, in 
one instance, found fourteen, all practically touching. 

They were, of course, in no regular order, but were in 
every conceivable position. When first exposed the bones 
were wet and soft, but after drying in the sun would be fairly 
hard and firm. After the steam shovel was put to work, practi- 
cally all the bones were broken when they got to the surface. 
Some of the skulls were of enormous size, and they all had 
low foreheads. All seemed to be adults, and one noticeable 
feature was .he almost perfect condition of the teeth, which 
sboA'ed absolutely no sign of decay. 

Several broken pieces of pottery were found, also some 
presumably ivory beads, about 13^ inches long, with a hole 
lengthwise through the centre and a diagonal groove on the 
outside. 

Some of these bones were sent to the Pan-American Ex- 
position at Buffalo some years ago. 

The last of this shell deposit was removed during the 
lutnmer of 1896. Yours respectfully, 

H.J. Simmons, 
General Superintendent, 




ARCHy€ObOGICAb NOTES. 



A Prehistoric Village has been found in (he Rhon 
Mountains in Bavaria. The village contained twenty-nine 
funnel-shaped dwellings, eight to ten meters in diameter, equal 
distances apart. A thick slab of sandstone, used in grinding, 
lay in front of a hearth, in which ashes and cinders were found. 

Roman Roads in Britain. — A book on this subject, written 
by Thomas Codringion, is published by the Society for Pro- 
moting Christian Knowledge. This does not go back to pre- 
historic times, and throws no light on the roads which pre- 
vailed in that age, but it seems probable that the ancient circles 
and standing stones were connected with one another by trails 
at least. 

Prehistoric Studies in Austria.— Under the auspices of 
the Vienra Academy of Science there have been biought to 
light many Neolithic settlements, with painted pottery, a few 
of them decorated with patterns; also ladles with cheiron and 
other patterns, and human ano other figures. Beaver, wolf, fox, 
lynx, and stag dominated, but the domestic dog and pig were 
also found. 

Family Burial Grounds. — The Journal of the Anthro- 
pological Institute reports the discovery of shells in barrows. 
In some barrows they were so remarkable as to convey the idea 
to Dr. Wright that the barrows were family burial grounds, and 
yet a great variety of shells were found in the same region, in 
East York Town. The interments varied from the Stone Age 
to the early Iron Age. 

Cairns and Tumuli have been found on the Island of 
Bute in Scotland. One of the cairns was superimposed upon 
a kitchen midden, which appears to be the earliest remains of 
man's occupation yet discovered in the islands. In one of the 
chambers a stone edged urn was found, also a drinking cup. 
This brings it up to the Bronze Age, the three ages being 
manifest in the same spot. 

The Kxcavations at Gezer. — The discoveries made at this 
point has shown conclusively that many things are hidden under 
the soil of Palestine which will, undoubtedly, throw much light 
upon the early history of that land, and probably confirm the 
Scriptures. A model of the ruins of Gezer will be shown at 
the St. Louis Exposition. The discovery of infants' bones 
buried under corner stones indicates the prevalence of infant 
sacrifice, and explains the passage: ** The man, who in the 
days of Ahab built the wall of Jericho in his oldest son, and set 
up the last gate in his youngest son." — Kings xvii 134. 



ARCHAEOLOGICAL NOTES. 125 

Orchomenos.— A siie of an ancient ciiy in Hothnia. is prov- 
ing to be of gieai interest. Here was buried al the foot of 
the slope the Treasury of Minyas. Last spring excavations 
were renewed by Prof. Furlwanglcr, of Munich. During the 
first clays of digging the remains of a i^alace on a large scale 
wa> lound, fuM of Mycen^an vase fragments; also wall paint- 
ings, and other articles. In technique, conception, ornaments 
and h.;urcs the paintiufjs agree exactly with the Cretan palace 
of Kiiossos. This confirms the supposition that Crete was the 
real center of Mycenaean civilization. Only bronze imple- 
menis are found; no trace of tin. The most important result 
is tJic assurance of a close connection with Crelc- 

Chinese Jade is chiefly brought from the Himilaya Range, 
between (he desert of Gobie and Thibet, and from Khoten in 
Yak and still further west. It was a precious stone and was 
manufactured into tablets as early as 700 B, C, or before the 
time of Confucius The term as employed includes two 
miiiL-rals — jddeiii- am! nephrite. By the* mere Iprocess of 
handling and inspeciion it is i npossible to distinguish one from 
the other, but the specific tjiavily of jadeite is considerably 
greater than nephrite, and vanes as one, three, nine. Jade is 
much the harder of the two. Fire and steel can do il no in- 
jury. The famous Buddhist Hsuan Tsung. who travelled to 
India in 700 A. D . .sptalcJ of a jade lake, or a lake where peo- 
ple go to collect jade. Jade occurs in two color.s — white and 
green. The great Mongol. General Bayon, while digging a 
well at Buteu. is said to have cbme acro-s a statue of jade, 
three or four feet high. Elsewhere we read of two bowls of 
jade, which would revolve within one another but could not be 
scpcrated. There ts a record of a jade lamp, seven feet five 
inches high, and five branches, with a dragon coiled around 
each branch. — CfJitiiry .'ifngn^inc.Jan. tqo4. 



B EDITORIAL NOTES. 

HvKSus AND HiTTiTES. — Three writers. Prof. J. M. MacKay. 
Percy Newbury and John Gorstong, have written on the above 
sufjject, and take the position that the Hyksos kings were 
Hitlites. An article in Naiun. November \2. 1903. shows that 
the same opinion was advanced as early as 1879, but has not 
bCL-n fully adopted. In fact there are some fatal objections to 
ii. as the supposition is that the immigrants depicted on the 
walls of the tomb of Beni Hassen are Hittites. whereas they 
ha\c every appearance of bein? Semites and not Turanians. 
Pr.if. Sayce argues that the Hittites were not Scmitics, and 
shows this from their physiognomy. 

Chedoslaomer and Hammurabi. — In Genesis there is an 
account of an invasion upon the cities of the plain, where the 



126 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Dead Sea now is— four kings against five, in which the name 
of Chedorlaomer and Amraphael are given. It has been dis- 
covered that the name Chedorlaomer means **. Kudur/* 
"servant/' Lagamar an Edomite deity; so that Chedor- 
laomer was a servant of the Klamite god. Amraphael was 
another name for Hammurabi, whose remarkable code has 
been discovered. The invi sion occurred about 2200 B. C. The 
supposition about the laws is that they were such as were ex- 
tant in Babylonia, but thty differed from the Ten Command- 
ments, in that crime uas punished in Babylonia because it \«as 
injurious to society. The civil code fixed penalties. With the 
Mosaic law, crime was punished because it was an offense 
against God. Babylonian law was the law of Caanan down to 
the time of the conquest by the Israelites, but after the con- 
quest, religion which consisted in the worship of one God pre- 
vailed. 

American Origins.— The subject of American Origins has 
been discussed many times in the pages of The Averican 
Antiquarian, and its pages are still open for further discussion. 
There are archaeologists on this continent who treat the prob- 
lem as already solved, and consider that all forms of culture, 
religious beliefs, myths and symbols, and art products were 
developed independently in America, and sneer at those who 
hold a contrary opinion; and some of the journals published 
are intolerant of the other opinion. It shows no superiority 
in anyone when he cuts off debate on any subject, as if his 
position was the correct one and nothing more was to be said. 
The Americanist who is studying the origin and development 
of civilization may think that there arc many evidences of a 
separate development on this continent, independent of every 
other, but those who have studied the Oriental mythology are 
fully as well qualified to discuss the subject, as he who decides 
before hand and cuts off debate. We have no sympathy with 
intolerance or dogmatism in science, any more than we have in 
religion, and take issue with everyone who consciously or un- 
consiously passes resolutions and expects everyone to adopt 
them. 

The Biblical World. — This journal lacks only three years 
of being as old as The American Antiquarian, although it has 
changed its name several times. The February number con- 
tains an article by Prof. Samuel Ives Curtis, of the Chicago 
Seminary, entitled "Researches in Syria and Palestine Con- 
ducted in the Summer of 1903," and another on the ** Feasts 
and Fasts in Modern Palestine," by Dr. E. W. G. Masterman. 



EDITORIAL). 



THE DISTRIBUTION OF PILE-DWELLINGS. 

The peculiarity of pile-dwellings is that ihey are made of 
wood, and yd many ot ihem belong to the Stone Age. It is 
Tcmarkahle that wooden structures which were erected during 
this age should have been preserved so perfectly that archae- 
ologist have been able to reconstruct them, and to decide as 
to their shape, the manner in which ihey were bull'., their dis- 
tance from shore, and the class of people who occupied them. 
This is owing largf^ly to the fact that the pile-dwellings of 
Switzerland were buried under deep layers of mud. and so 
were kept from the destroying influence of the elements. It 
is well known that wood, when buried under soil and away 
from atmosphere, may remain for manv ages and its fiber and 
character may be easily determined by the geologists and 
naturalists. 

Along with the wooden piles, many remains of fruit, graii'. 
and woven garments, as well as stone and copper relicb, uere 
discovered in the mud in a fair degree of preservation. Thtse 
have furnished a view of the domestic life and social condition 
of the people who dwelt in the interior of the continent of 
Europe in late prehistoric times, and have thrown much light 
upon their social condition and their art and architecture. 

The mounds, cists and stone chambers when opened con- 
tain the remains of bodies and reli:s which had been used, but 
the remains of the Lake Dwellings have furnished a view o£ 
the people as they were when alive, and it is easy to dra\v a 
picture of their social condition and to imagine their mode of 
life. 

The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland may be assigned lo 
three different periods. The first is marked by rude stone relit s, 
coarse pottery and no ornamentation; the second, by hatcheis, 
made of red nephrite jade, and a few copper lelics; the foi- 
tery is fine, ornampnted, and has piojecling handles, The 
third was marked by copper weapons and tools, slonc ham- 
mers and hatchets carefully pierced, beads, necklaces, pend- 
ants, buttons, needles and horn combs, vases provided wih 
handles and covered with ornaments. The distance from ihc 
shore of the ancient Lake Dwellings varied from 131 to igS fi et, 
the more recent, from 656 to 984 feet. Some of the pile dv el- 
lings were held by piles driven into the mud. others by piles 
which were kept in position by blocks of stone, called pock- 
werbaiiten, and by the Germans, steinbergen. The number of 
piles is very great, varying from 40.000 at Wangen to lOO.OCO 



128 THE AMERICAN ANTigUARlAN. 

at Robenhausen. 1 he area occupied by the station varies 
from 1,200 to 21,000 square feet. The houses on the platforms 
wcr^ made of wattlf and hurdlework, and sometimes of piles 
split in halt, and the floors were of the same material and 
divided by thick layers of clay. These houses are the earli- 
est specimens of house architecture that have been found in 
Europe. 

It has. however, been shown by recent discoveries that a 
similar mode of life prevailed in many parts of the globe in 
prehistoric times, and survived into the historic days. 

The point which interests us at the present time, is the 
distribution of the pile-dwellings. They were known in early 
historic times as situated in the midst of the forests of Europe, 
and as iiiarking the different stages of growth through which 
society passed in that region. Latterly, however, it has been 
noticed that similar structures still occupied, are scattered 
along the shores of the different continents and near the 
islands of the Pacifir, though few have yet been found on the 
western coasts of America. 

This custom of erecting houses above the water was not 
contlned to luiropc or Asia, or the prehistoric age, for there 
arc many islands scattered over the South Pacific, near which 
houses are still to be seen built above the water, specimens of 
which ma\' be seen in the cuts. This custom became so com- 
mon, that many of the houses on the islands themselves were 
built on high posts. This custom prevails at the present time 
in the Philippines, in Borneo, and elsewhere. The rea>on fol* 
it is that it protects from floods and from reptiles. It is prob- 
able that it came originally from the Malay habit of erecting 
buildings over the water. In the olden time it was the custom 
when the first post was set in the ground to sacrifice a slave 
and ])lace the body below the post, a custom which seems to 
havr spread as far as to the Northwest coast of America. 

One of the cuts prisented herewith shows the pile-dwellings 
situated in the Southern Pacific. These are quite remote 
from the land, and some of them are modern in their 
construction. The piU s are Ui t so substantial, or so well con- 
structed as were those which were built bv the earlv inhabi- 
tants of Switzerland in prehistoric times, and yet they illustrate 
the surviv^al of a custom which was prevalent during the times. 

Another of the cuts illustrate the manner of constructing^ 
houses upon land, with posts below designed to support them, 
the platfurms and floors being raised above the surface of the 
earth, very much as the platfoims were placed above the sur- 
face of the water. Such dwellings, however, are found in 
tropic il regions where vegetation grows rank, and where 
venemous reptiles are numerous. 



BOOK REVIEWS. 



Tii« First op Empirrs: "Babylon of the Bible." By W. Si. Chad 
Boscaweti. New York: Harper Bros, ■• 

. Boscawen's account of Ihe «arJiest hislorv of Babyloi 



t by those «ho B 

I lorceil lo ta; 



«JII be 



read with gre 
Atsf nologirai tescarcn 

moonds are slowly bei. „ . , .. . , 

bxve [ollowed in quick successioa; and, although merely a fraction of Ihe 
iotcriplioris have been edited, we know almost as much o( ancient Baby- 
lonia and Astvria as we do of Greece or Rome Wt have become 
acquainted witb civilization rcmaikable as much lor its advai ccd stale of 
development as lor its great antiquity; hundreds of comract-tablets bear 
witness to its wide*5pread trade and commerce; doiens of royal letters have 
thrown a flood ol light upon Ihe organiiation of the kingdom, and the 
recent discovery of an elaborate Code containing some two hundred laws, 
was a valuable record of the Rreatest sociological interest, which peimiltcd 
us to see into the internal economy of this ancient seat of culrure. Thanks 
to the literary activity of later centuries, and especially lo the energies of 
the Assyrian King Asurbanipal, there are preserved numerous religious and 
mythological tents, copies of originals which, in the opinion of Ai-sviiolo- 
gists, date back to the third mlllenium at least. Such ate mo&t imporiant 
sources for the reconstruction of old Babylonian history, and it is not until 
the period of the native Babylonian dynasty, of which the famous Kham- 
murabi diria 1250 B. C.) was the most prominent figure, that a moie or less 
consecutive and complete record is recoverable. 

Mr. Boscawen's sketch of the origin and growth of tl'e Babylonian 
empire " from the earliest timts to the consolidation of the empire in icoo 
B. C., draws largely upon the source* above mentioned, Of real liiiloi'cal 
ioloroialionwehavebut little, and at the best it is obscure. He hat. however. 
made the most ot bis scanty material, and, at all events, he has surcfeHed 
in laying before the reader a tolcrablv clear account of life ard lhou( hi of 
the oldest period. His book popularizes the re-ulls of recent excavsiicns 
and dccirbetmcnt, and has not only the merits, but, unfortunately, a ereat 
many of the demerits, of popular writings. It contains a good deal that is 
not new, and some new things thai are not ^ood. The sub-title " Babylon 
and the Bible" suggests the BabclBible controversy, and, ot a truth. Mr. 
Boacawen is pre-eminently one of those who trace in Hebrew history and 
literature the working of Babylonian culture and civilization, J, OFroBD. 



MAM'S PLACE IN THE Universe. A Study of the Results of ScienMfic 

Research in Relation to Ihe Unity or Plurality of WoHds. By Alfred 

L. Wallace, LL, D. New York; McClure & Phillips, 

The position which the autt-or of this book takes, is that this wnrld is 

the only one out of the countless multitude, that is inhabited by inlelligrni 

beings, like ourselves. The author refers to the great belt of telescopic 

stars called the Milky Way. and magnifies the extent of the material uni- 

verec. He speaks of the nebula and spiral forms and iheheavrns 




thai the longest available base line it less than 

•peaks of the evolution of the star system. He 

cal slat, then desrribes the nebul;t and meiet 

question: ■ Are Ihe stars irfinile in number?" 

As to whether there are other material uni 

thottgh many astronomers think the stelli 



ays that the f 
bypotheie;, a 



ircle. 



He 



■ .- 7 - 1 *. v{ £ • . Z - *• .O* 7. ^V A •. IW 

.-1.1 i i - :«-•■: z r:it :.*nu-«. z lol:; li -^is K _ki '-Vat m-d w« are lur- 

*■•*■*• • Z''-'»Z I :"jj*5 I*" l..l.%.nil •1, ""XTS!!" 

.' r t . .. .•• I*:- i-^j -^ i::^ :•- -_:^ ^5.r-•i:.a_ :ain.:*eri c: the *iving 

". "ti- -.1 ii -TtJi 7'i- ■::■:-. :i :: -.tiJi^ uii ei-tr^ .s one of the 

■-.«■« *-. : i .T *>;»•-:: r"sw ^ * iz:«"-.tr' i^-* :*:e*5 rv of solar iighl, 

i:: '-• i-: :- i. - .i-t.i-.:: • t Li:'z*r I r :•- :zir:ee::ih. chapter 

. : :t— Lit: ' ;•:' t ■.: i •■_!*• t-"": *•_;*:- i zzxz tar.e s.anet ic the 

i «- :«T t" "•..»-■•:••*-» i": it": -*•! -. : rii zzi^z . :e. He acknowl- 

*'-.- "i .=:•--.: .; :-: Is .: i" : -• -ir i_:c-* *^: i.i 'r« :- a pc*:iion to 

»-:. " ^ t :: -•- v - t- ■:• *- i.i*i ■ LT e'7 a::i :"-€ cm:reme in- 

tt -".: z c;— :-:•:. "J --:*.. -^ :ryca-:s=:, many of 

»■ : -. -t ;t--i:: k-T'.'-.-.t iz-t: i -iijis 5 :-- ;*;:r«raph:c rlalc. 

: 'i ■- ■ . -5 ■ - V : ■ - it' i ?- TiTesti 4 rrei: «-:.er::5:toadopl. 

- - 4 '• . ". ■ -• J ■ - ti .Ti :i..* .* :£e < » "" * strange, mys- 

*-• .- : •- - -. ■• - T : . --i- ■; :. :* K '.Zi :* :-. :-r earth ;s ied up 

'■: ' . - 'izz \ ■' I- : *■ ". : - iJi s iz ii -■ i and nv:h:ng more. 

'• = "- "M-.i-i* - — .- .- •-« ".:.*•- ziiT r* and ct-baolv arc 

•-■ ■ r-'.z' :^-:ii: :'::- i 1 :*:: —i::tr ir.l 5---*;: to other kinds 

."ri.-- -., t-Ti-- • -HI: -:•;::- i- i jves the couplet lo ex- 

■ * if .?:•-? *:-.:-. ir- :-*-.- :t »".". :re Inr.nilt." 

-.---■- •-.- ^ ;• ;: .•-- -.*::.;■ -.t'.r.f A -.:-ih>. »e carn-'t find 

•..■■.::':?'. 5 -.::-: . r. zi: z, ■ r.r «r. . r.is * .:h a i ei* ««i ihe 

"- ■•: •t: -.- i= •-• i-"-.- ~t- 1 .? 7*e :2.::". -5 en " : ireauthoris 

■ ■ -*■: . •. : i'i :•. : :-.. -. =- -fc-.: -.i -*? tr:-". tr.e future state. The 

'- ■ ■■:*:-::: -r.t :- - ■ c : i:;: i .--:■. iri^ --less the eye of faith 



". ',. 'J. 



: V ':hr. Estes Cook. New 
^P- 533- J'rice. Si.ij. 

"r -t: : '"r A:.;r :in C?n:n:on*ea;:h Series. We 

- . •.:■:■*■ r:.:: rf:t:tr.:-s :■ '.he main points that are 
--i . .-<?:::- = a:: runic: t ^hattanand Pocahontas 

- :r-:r ->■. - - tr. r.:frt*::r.^ and beautiful. Disorder 
. :■. ii'.t'^-i'i S: rr.:n:as Dale is described as a rude 



-•■.•• \»- 

- • ■ ■ . « I B^ • « 



- .'•: •: •• t :• vr. : '.hv : . tnti: or.s :r. : ;: bears the true Virginia stamp. 

.' ■ •■ :. -::.•- T'. .'■ ,-tZ :rir. . : ..;. ■ :. '.he r .Ar^e estates, and entertained friends 

'.r "'ir/vr-; i'r.z i.*.:rr ::::•:". ^* 'a: ^n -^^curri d between 1050 and 1670. 

".'«•■ :..■••:. A>.i tr.-r jre.t*.-.:: tr. -> n o: a ro>a:i»t who took refuge in Vir- 

J ..'■ ^.'.r.\ --•.:. -rs 'if '. r^:::".;! \vc:re sii:\'jct t«> n:s of passion, as illus- 
•r • •■ •. ••.♦: r,^^'- z: N.r.hrt:. e. i i on. .*^;r Wiliiam Berkley was devoted 

• . •:.■ ..tr ;.;. ;ir,.i ::»e ' fiur. h. .\t one time !t was the project of Dean 
■ A r- • . , f.'t'.-.-.r the Bi-rnp to \':r^inia. The visit of Georf^e Whitfield is 
r '••'♦• rr'>: *u. ^ire;it (.rowtJs rol.ivved hirr», but his coming split the I'resby- 

• r -iri ' r. ir'.h mio the new side Aiid the o'.d side. The account of Rrad* 
•'.-',' t. - '!• ffrat an'l the part which George Washinj;lon had in it, is interest- 
III ' I r,'- \i"X\t\<\ fr'im the Tni<id!e nf the seventeenth century to the Revolu- 

• in A-!s 'h" hi^^i water si.irk of the social tide in Virginia, still the 
' 1.1 .'r- .iri'l 1' irit;m went hand in hand during the Revolution. 

I r.i- .iriThrir has :;iven a rcn;irkable view of the courai;e of Washington 
\u birti'-. Mr- aNo rlesrribes the ii^ovements of Lafayette, and the sur- 
r'-ri'lrr t.f ( orinvalhs, Jefferson is described as the defender of democracy. 
"1 ijr lii»r.itiir^ of Virginia comes in for a brief review. 

i \\r. last of the book treats nf Virginia since the war. The hesitation 
of Virginia to enter into the contest and take the Southern side in the Ke- 
l-rllioii IS certainly to be commended, for it shows the State was really loyal 
at hr.irt. as she has been ever since. 



BOOK REVIEWS. 153. 

KTEH Fragufnts. By Edgar J. Good^pftd, 
Reprinled from the Journal of Hellenic Sludies. Vol. XXIU i^y 
Thb Decennial Publications' Greek Papyki vruu the Cairo 
Museum. Together with pAPvm op Roman Egypt from Ameri- 
can Collections. By Edgar J. Coodspeed. Kfprint:d from \ ol- 
V. Chicago: The University of Chi.caKO Preis, Pp. 78, 1901. 

Il is a credit to the Univt-rsity ol Chicago that ducuinenis which vary 
in age from 3000 B. C. to 300 A. I), should be reptoducd. sutne cf 1 hem in 
(he cuneiform language and other* in Greek. Pti>i, Robeit Harpir has 
published the Code of Hammurabi from the cuueiform, and Prof. Good speed 
ha* translated the Greek papyri. Prof Goodspecd has given special atten- 
tioD to the Greek papyri. He has discovered an Alexandria* Hexameter, 
which IS no lorigrr extant, belonging to the second century; al'o Itajments 
of tbe 15Ih book of the Odissy, a medical fragment of the second crnrury. 
a letter ol the third century, and a loan contract 111 B. C 

The reprint from the lotirnal of Hellenic Studies, has a fragment which 
is printed so as lo show tbe color ol the papyrus aod the [orm ijf tbe Greek 
letters. The fragment may belong lo the proper epic poem of the Altx- 
andrian time. 

Journal op thb Transactions of Thb Victoria Institute, or 
Philosophical Society of Great Bkitain. By the Secieiary. 
London. ig03. 

Prof Lionel S. Beal addressed the Victoria Institute, February 3. igoa, 
on tbe suMjeci. "Water Essential to All Life," in which betakes the ground 
th»I liftf IS absolutely distinct from maitir, and that iheic Is general grad- 
ation from the physical world to the life world; that life is absolutely differ- 
ent from noalite; that ail the life we know comes Irom life only, Life de- 
pends not only un the great part of the body which we can see, but upoti 
Ihosc minute living panicles which exist in all the tissues and organs. 
These p»rlicles used to be called cells, but each aocalled cell consists o( 
two parts, the living and not living. Every part of the active living matter 
il moist and receives its nourishment' dissolved in water. The portion of 
solid matter dissolved in water it enormous. The organ which does the 
most wonderful work in all Irving nature, is the biain. 

Mr. Walter Kidd read a paper on the - Adaptnlion and Selection In 
Nature and their Bearing; on Design," He says adaptation and selection is 
obvious, that natural selection is unntcet'sary. Design is imminent in the 
marvelous change of life, whatever be the way the links have been formed 
by the Divine Artificer. 

Another article is upon " The Preperati 
Loebly, (■'. R. G. S. This address also has 

olheis' have. All seem (o conlradict the materialistic view ol creation and 
life. 

A Bribf History of Rockv Mountain Exploratior, with Special 
Refekence to the Expedition of Lewis and Clark. By Reubtn 
Gold Thwaites. With illustrations and maps. New Yoik: D. Apple- 
ton Co. iqoi. Pp.252. Price, *i,i5. 

This book treats first gl the explorations among the seven cities of 
Cibola by the Spanish. Next the French explorations from the ea>t. bv 
Ntcolel and Charlevoix and others. The English explorations commenced 
first, by the Hudson Bay Company. During nil this ti ire. for over 100 
I, tbe dream o( navigator '- ■"- '-'- ■' - '~ ' 



I WJT S. t 



In 1761 Alexander Henry, a Scotchman, was Ira 
:3 of Minnesota. Id 1766 Carver descended the Foi 



IMLAdZLJkS AXTKECARIAJf. 




i^^ii^-aizis rtaoiti zut itssb i^jT«r; b^wwswm Eftishnian. Thus '«'• 
x;i*T Hi* iDir r.a':ini.i.;ing& 

Tzit if.sszHT' :tg-giftf & ^^"^ *c ^ic Pftobc Levis and Clark w^v^ 
««sxi: in. oi^r •nir-nr^ jlztxjb tu ^a i riiTie. abooi tbt tJMe of the Louisim 'M^ 3 

i.«;f£: :r lilt :i:»aK trs r'<'SK iz ttiE loimeT of xktae two explorers. Ni 
irr?'* ::'. i^wi t at=sr-::i:iiiL in Iisric TteapsaK. vko reached the R 
r ■ ^ :i: iii^ iirr-^ sis: Frsssr v^r vas a cicrk of the North w 
. ':i.:.i.i « I ^jT -i^x^ 'acDi Asioc Dena ^e far trade about this tii 

I r: . ::ii. r-.c? wzi zxst zicr: ezxiiara. He paaned orcr the Kaasas prain. 
'ci.-.' M 'tiT «.M J. <sr n: thf snun: axiz vms takes prisoo^r by the Spani ^^K 

II r . . 5 rnisx 1 3i;<: s^3? ^-P^ xr me Rod Rivers. Steamboats had tl^ ^s x 
::z_i I.".: lait. 

Ii rjLi *. :a5 Z.:x li&riis&ec ar arr:*im of a series ot adventores c^n 
*!* }.:tic> >£:>Li:ii.:z^ Hsnrr R Sr.to^tjcraft vas stodjia^ the sources «3f 
:ir ':^s:f>:-;i Vki.:ii^;&i. vas a: ixre Wiaaooi Rirer. Aboat this tivaac 
Z&i 1 *rLS i.=:ni.r ^t.'- ytiZiZiJxiL In :S55 Mark W^tman and Rev, ^^«-. 
S~eL.ij.r '£:zi:is*i Z'-e^nx. Ii. : ict ^joc taok op the hoe of the Ore^oaa 
tr«L . * T-f^jiii^ s £:l;- nraiinL i-ctk p^ce a^Mot this tune, sapplemented ^yf 

V.'_ i— Mil i.:ii:c« 

• • • 

T-£ ;-• -»-»:* ?.i^: :f:Ti ft-e the RfFERExce of Relics to J^ 
I. ' «- -. • r * T. r. JiiSLberlahL Reprmt from the Joornalo/ 
frr :£^ V: X-. S: :. a-rnari and Febroary. 1903. Chicago: The 
'Jz. isrs :> :: J :..:•£: Press 

'"*'-•■ Jii— r.i:-i. - 5 p:>:t.oc .1. itj paapUet, is as follows: The be- 

^_ r- -^ ^ -___ •■ .1^ I 



.11 : ir.i: —a- :r.r -i:t- z^d- lac Eisiera motiarm is supported by the 
prfi ii*ri-:i :: £?:-:r*rA- trjieace. Sat the ^aestioa is one of date. 
E . i*- :c f: : a** ri -£ nar re a g arjL perioi, is to be soa|^ht in glacial 
a-i .i:-'-t a." i. ::r-:i: :z5. Tirre ar« soarces of error connected with 

•."- .Ltf- j i: 1 2^::.' :3 ti:-*:- *'-cy present the most promising field. 
1 :.- u- :-':i -:. .5 :».!£::: ihe ^erv ::::pro3iising character of valley gravel 

7 -55 ; irr.: ~ e: • Ai »::::?- after :be nnding of the Lansing skull. The 
d sciss :r. :-. jr in s sku.l iis ccase-i but the pamphlet will be useful when 
:r.r r.-x: i i;:v;r> i.ziiie ar.i the i.srjssioo begins anew. The field for 
i -ever. ^ r. :.»^*v-r. vfr» br:>-ai, and includes the regions of Central 
AT.-r-.ci as *-el. i> the Norihwes: C3ast; each of which localities presents * 
a i.rztrtn: prjD.en: ar.i or.e disconnected from the glacial deposits. 



^mcricart ^ntiquariatt 



V(»u XXVI. May and June, 1904, 



COMPARISON OF THE CODICES WITH THE ORDI- 
NARY PICTOGRAPHS. 

BV STEPHEN D. PEET, PH. 

The codices which arc so common among the tribes of the 
Southwest, have been studied with j^reat care for a number of 
years, and many things which were formerly obscure have been 
cleared up. but the problem as to their origin is still unsolved. 
It would seem, however, to those who have become familiar 
with the piclographs and other symbols which are still com- 
rrion among the uncivilized tribes, that there was a very- 
close connection between them, and that both treat or the 
same subject. There was, to be sure, a great difference betw 
the material which was used in the codices and that in the 
Ordinary pictographs. The codices were made out of pap;r. 
eeoerally folded like a fan. but so arranged that they could be 
drawn out, and the hieroglyphics and pictographs upon them 
Could be read, as in a book, 

The Codex Peresianus, discovered by Leon de Rosny in the 
National Library, Paris, 1S59, consists of 11 leaves, 32 pages, 
each 9 inches long, 5!j inches, and is full of both symbols and 

gictogiaphs. The Codex Troano, found by Hrasseur de Bour- 
ourg. in the possession of Don Juan Tro y Ortolano, and 
Called Troano from the name, consists of 35 Itaves, or 70 pages, 
each of them larger than the Dresden Codex. 

The Fejervary Codex is also another of the so-called books 
**f the Mayas. This contained pictographs which in themselves 
*re suggestive of the calendar system and the religious cere- 
'^cnials. and at the same time of common or ordinary events. 
*^nc peculiarity of this codex is that it has a pictograph in the 
'orm of a Maltese Cross with a tree in each arm of the cross; 
**n either side of the tree, a human figure, and above the tree, a 
'^ird. There are loops between the arms of the cross, and wiihiri 
each loop a staff, or long reed; while in the center is a human 
''Eure. armed with the spear thrower, or atlatl. There are bands 
*UrrouDding the loops and trapezoids, with dots, thirteen dote- 



138 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



on each side, — ihe pictographs and the symbols being sug- 
gestive of the Tree of Life, but the dots suggestive of the 
calendar system. 

The Tableau Des Bacab has the same combination of picto- 
giaphs and time symbols. The band surrounding ihe central 
figure contains twenty small circles; the lines drawn from the 
corners and along the borders contain thirteen dots, while the 
pictograph in the center contains a tree, with two figures under 
the tree, <vhich may be compared to our first parents, or the 
first pair; while upon either side of the tree are pictographs 
which represent the human sacrifice, a bound mummy, two per- 




TRER OP LCPC PROM TARLEAU DES BACAK. 

4ons seated in a house, and two other persons offering io' 

( I ) In reference to all of thpse codices, it may be said that 
they resemble the pictographs of ihe wild tribes in some re- 
pects, thougii ihey show much more acquaintance with the art 
of illustration, and much more advancement in the science of 
enumeration and in the art of writing, and yet it is a question 
whether the hieroglyphics had been carried to that stage in 
which they could be made to convey information to any except 
to the priest, or those who were trained to the work. It would 
seem as if the purpose of the priests was to conceal their 
knowledge from the common people, and yet make the 
•codices suggestive of religious rites and ceremonies. There is 
no doubt that the religion of the Mayas was quite similar to 
that of other tribes far'her north. It abounded with a belief 
in the supernatural beings which were connected with all the 




m 



the industries of man, though 
it had reached that stage in which person il beings were sup- 

?osed to preside over the elements and to control the universe, 
hese beings were not placed in the slty. or so remotely as to be 
unseen, but they were supposed to dwell cpon the earth and 
among men; but had different spheres of activity, and had con- 
trol over the different operations of nature and had different 
characters, the character of each corresponding with his pro- 
vince or his sphere. 

The pictographs are easily interpreted, and the tymbols, 
though they are somewhat arbitrary, are huggestive of time 
counts, and have to do with the calendar. So we may say of all 
ittae codices, that they contain pictographs which are easily read, 
"" r they relate to the ordinary industries and such scenes as 
light take place among almost any people, and especially a 
identary people, as the Mayas were. We must remember, how- 
Iver, that nearly all the American aborigines were more or less 
imiliar with the calendar system, and were accustomed to 
:ognize the different phases of the moon and their relation to 
,e ordinary pursuits, such as the planting of corn, the pur- 
lit of game, and other industries. When wc come to the 
ribes further west, we find that there were many things which 
rrvcd the same purpose as the codices. Among these we may 
mention the various rock inscriptions which were common 
among the cliff dwellings, the sand paintmgs which were com 
mon among tlie Navajos, and the sacred dramas and religious 
ceremonies which were common among the Pueblos. These 
were generally under the care of the priests, or sacred men, 
and were explained and tra.ismitted by them. There were cer- 
tain persons also, who were taught their significance and were 
able to interpret them to the common people. The utmost 
care was taken among the Navajos to see that the sand paint- 
ngs were made exactly right and that the story was told with- 
-put variation 

(2 ) It is true that all of the tribes divided the sky according 
the points of the compass and gave to each part a different 
ilor. and assigned a different animal or symbol to the parts of 
e sky, although they varied according to locality. Among 
the Mayas, the south was denoted bv a blue field, and the rab- 
bit was the symbol; the east, by a red field, and the cane was 
the symbol; the north, by a yellow field, and the flint was the 
symbol; and the west, by a green field, and a house was the 
symbol. 

Many of the codices divide the sky into four parts accord- 
ing to the cardinal points, and seem to ascribe to these differ- 
ent parts certain nature diviniiies. which are used as symbols, 
though they drew these symbols from familiar objects which 
were to be found upon the surface of the earth or water, and 
had no counterpart in the sky above. To illustrate, in the the 
Vatican Codex there were five signs, which were placed over 



I40 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

against each of the points of the compass, — at the south, the 
flower, grass, a lizard, a bird and a rabbit, each of which were 
emblems of some attribute^ such as the shortness of life, 
nakedness, etc. They placed over the signs of the west, a 
deer, an ape, the house; at the north, a tiger, skull, flint knife, 
cane, human head; at the east, a serpent, earthquake, water and 
the moon. The cardinal points were symbolized by angular 
loops and trapezoid figures, with various symbols in the loops 
ind in the figures. The red loop was at the top, the east; the 
yellow at the left hand, representing north; the olue loop at the 
bottom, representing the west; the green loop at the right hand, 
representing the south. The symbols were as follows: the cane 
to the east; the.tecpatl or flint to the north, the house, calli, to 
the west; and tochtU, the rabbit, to the south. The significance 
of these symbols as applied to the points of the compass and 
the symbols themselves variec . In the Vatican Code^x we ob- 
serve four trees, with two individuals clasping the trunk; one 
of them red. the other, white. On the top of each tree is a 
bird, or an animal, representing the different seasons of the 
year — spring, summer, autumn and winter. 

(3) The use of the number 13 was common not only among 
the Mayas and tribes of Central America, but was also common 
among the hunter tribes of the Mississippi Valley. With them 
it was derived from the habit of watching the moon and count- 
ing the months by it, or making the lunar months the unit. 
There was no other division with them of the year, certainly,, 
no such division of the year into the solar and sacred year, as 
the Mayas had. We find the numbers 8 and 13 on the shell 
gorgets, for there are four points, and sometimes eight points^ 
to the sun; four sides to the square; four birds projecting from 
the square; four loops projecting from the corner of the .square; 
but there are 13 dots in the loops, probably symbolizing the 13 
moons. This gives rise to the inquiry whether there was any 
such connection between the shell gorgets and the codices, as 
to say that the one grew out of the other. On this point, we 
might say that, if there were any intermediate stages between 
the two, we might suppose that these codices had really grown 
up out of such primitive symbols; but these are wanting. 

The sacred dramas among the Zunis, Sias, Hopis, and 
Tusayans resembled the codices, in that they were carefully 
guarded and every part of the ceremony was significant. 
There was always a story connected with every one of these cere- 
monies; a story which began with the Creation and involved 
the Deluge, and included the history of the people, with alf 
their wanderings and changings. In fact they served the same 
purpose to these different tribes, as the Bible did to the Israel- 
ites, and they were as sacred to them as the Bible is to us. They 
also resembled the codices which were so common among the 
tribes of the Southwest, in that they served as calendars accord* 
ing to which the religious ceremonies and festivals were regu- 



r 



COMPARISON OF CODICES WITH PICTOGRAPHS. 



141 



lated and the close connection between the position ol the 
cut! jtelUtLon of Pleiades in the sky and the time when the festi- 
vals were observed. 

vVheii we compare the so called altars «hi h wire common 
am )ng the Tusayans with the codices found among Ma^a 
tribe* we shall find that the mam difference is in th-- Inero 
glvfhics which are seen on the borders ot the page but the 



pja, / :3f ^ 



ft As 




OF THE TUS*VANS. 



idols carved in human shap ■ and painted in different colors, and 
serpenis, and bird-, and rain clouds, and olher symbols, are 
all present. We have built nuthing upon the symbols, but 
there are myths which are on record, which so resemble one an 
ther. that they would seem to have come from a common pos- 
session, especially the myths which rc-lale to the Creatinn. ihe 
Flood, and the different period*! of lime. The mythology of 
the people has b^en gathered into ihe sacred books, just as the 



142 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

traditions of Polynesia and the Easter Islands have been re* 
corded in pictures on slabs. 

The comparison between the sign language, pictographs, 
Mide-songs and Bark records with the codices is certainly very 
suggestive. They together constitute the exponents of the 
religious thought of the people, and must be regarded as im* 
portant, not as revelations of truth, but rather as signs of the 
progress of thought. No one would go to the codices to find 
out the religious truth, as he would to'the Book of Revelation, 
but they reveal the struggles of the human mind to apprehend 
the truth, and the difficulties which are in the way of the pagan 
and heathen nations. 

It is not known that the medicine men or priests, who 
made the sand-paintings and had charge of the altars and 
kivas, had control over the industries of the people, as the 
Maya priests did; still, the people and the priests^ were in 
harmony, and the religious mechanism was not si parated 
from the civil or social life, but, on the other hand, was an im- 
portant part. 

(4) There is another point to be considered in this connec- 
tion. The drapery which was used in the religious ceremonies 
varied according to locality, and yet the patterns and the symbols 
became more and more complicated and suggestive as we pass 
toward the Southwest. The rude tribes had only the inscribed 
shells and tablets, while the agricultural tribes on the great 
plateau had their very elaborate paraphernalia of carved and 
painted sticks surrounding their altars, bowls of sacred meal, 
dolls, miniature birds and animals, and many other objects; but 
as we come to the more civilized tribes, v e fincf the altars made 
of stone, with grotesque images carved upon them; all of 
them suggestive of their mythology. 

It is also to be noticed that the dress and costume of the 
warriors, and the sashes and head-dressrs of the priests or 
medicine men, became more and more complicated, and every 
part of them was symbolic of some object in nature and had 
a symbolic meaning, which symbols were woven into the scarfs 
of the Navajo warriors, and painted upon the shields of the 
Zunis, but were borrowed from the objects of nature, such as 
the mountains, clouds, trees, and animals, and yet all the charts 
and symbols are suggestive of the early origin of the people 
and of their historv. 

It is however to be noticed that the same elementary symbols 
were preserved among all the tribes, the cross, the circle, the 
crescent, the suastika, the serpent, the rainbow, the cloud, the 
arch, the stepped figure, the cosmic symbol, the mask, the 
manitou face, the human eye, and the phallus. There were also 
many animals represented in the codices, though the animals 
arc often in grotesque attitudes, with stranee figures and colors, 
the significance of which was known only to the priests, and 
was interpreted by them; the codices being so complicated^ 



COMPARISON OF CODICES WITH PICTOGRAPHS. 



"43 



that it seems now almost impossible to ascertain their object 
Of meaning. It does not seem that the long periods of time 
were taken into account by the rude tribes, for all that they 
undertook to do, was to regulate their own pursuits by watch- 
ing the position of the moon in the sky and noticing the 
progress of the seasons. The corn planting and hunting were 
regulated by the moon and by the progress of the season; 
each su<:ceeding year being the repetition of the past one. 

Still, we must remember that the Delawares had a bark 
record in which there was recorded ihc history of their wander- 
ings and their conflicts, and this was arranged according to the 
years and the rule of certain priests and chiefs, though it began 
just as the calendar atone docs, with the story of the Creation. 
We must remember, also, that the Dakotas had what they called 
Winter count?, which were painted on the inside of buffalo robes 




3 FIGURES FROM THE MOUNDS. 



WARRIOR AND CAPTIVE. 



and which gave the history of the more important events of 
the tribe. The Mandans also had, according to Catlin, certain 
ceremonies, at the time of the initiation of warriors, in which 
the story of the Creation and Flood was dramatized; even 
Noah, the great ancestor, is supposed to have visited them. 
The Navajos have many sand-paintings which contain tlic 
record of certain important events, but their mythology goe& 
back to the Creation and the time of the Flood. The Zunis 
have also, charts which contain the records of their wanderings. 
We find nothing like the calendar stone out ide of Mexico, 
and no evidence that there was a transmission of its sym- 
bolism or ritual from another region, though the tribes which 
were in close proximity, such as the Navajos. the Zunis. 
the Nahuas and the Mayas, are known to have borrowed fram 
one another. The calendar stone is, however, very suggestive, 
: here we have many of the symbols which are common 




^44 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

among all the tribes, and the very division is quite similar and 
very suggestive. Here we find the serpent divided into thirtetrn 
parts. Inside of the serpent are circles, which a c divided by 
•towers into four parts; others by triangles; others by grains of 
corn; others by rosettes, and in the center is the face sur- 
rounded by four pictographs, each one containing a s>nibol of 
the four destructions of the earth, — one by earthquake, one by 
tempest, one by fire, and the fourth by a flood. This calendar 
stone has already been explained, and is shown to have been 
based upon the time divisions which were common among the 
people and at the same time symbolizes the products, and was 
designed. to regulate the employments of the people. Accoid- 
ing to this, the world is divided into five regions, the year is 
divided into thirteen months, of twenty days each, making 260 
days; but the points of the compass are symbolized as well as 
the great epochs of the universe. 

Ttie codices contain the same prim( rdial symbols, and repie- 
sent the mythology more in detail. To illustrate: in the Vati- 
can Codex there are four trapezoidal figures, with the tree in 
the center, and a bird on the tree; on eitl>er side of the tree, a 
humnn figure clinging to the tree, one white and the other 
black. There are horseshoe figures between the tiiangles or 
trapezoids, with a staff running through the horseshoe and con- 
necting with the bird on the outside. 

Dr. Seler thinks that the two gods on either side the tree, 
makinjr in all eight gods, with the fire god in the center, sym- 
bolize the nine deities, who presided over the nine hours of the 
night — the sun god, the maize god, the death god, the goddess 
of the flowing water, the goddess of dirt and sin, and the heart 
of the mountain god. The figure in the center represents the 
god of sacrifice. Mr. Culin has called attention to the fact 
that this god in the center is armed with the spear thrower. 
Dr. Seler recognizes the other gods in this codex, as the god 
of above and below, the goddess of palms, and the goddess of 
the house. On the other hand, he also recognizes the four 
times five, or the twenty months, as well as the twenty quar- 
ters to the Venus period. Dr. Forstemann regards it as an 
astronomical chart, and thinks the symbols refer to long 
periods*. It, however, is a counterpart of the Tableau des 
Bacab. 

Dr. Seler regards the codex as the national book, the 
astrological calendar, in which 13x20^=260 days of the sacred 
year, 18x20-360 days of the solar year, and the entire calen- 
dar days of the entire year 

The codices common in Central America have many ser- 
pent figures upon them, as we have already shown. It is un- 
certain whether the tribes or people who use this serpent sym- 
bol in connection with the calendar were acquainted with the 
constellation of the great serpent in the northern sky. 
Although it must be acknowledged that they were familiar 



COMPARISON OF CODIUES WITH PICTOGRAPHS. t4S 

■with the figure of the great bear and the constellation of the 
Pie ades. This. ho*cver, docs not prove anything as to tl eir 
kno*ledge of the zodiac. In fact the division of the sky into 
great circles, such as the ecliptic and the equator, and divid- 
ing; [he spaces into zodiacal signs was peculiar to the civilized 
people of the far East, but was not practiced by the other his- 
toric races, though it is true that the Chinese had a representa- 
tion of the sky drawn upon the shell of a gigantic turtle. 

Among the Northern tiibes bark was often used for the 
preservation of the records, though the rock inscriptions were 
more enduring than either bark or paper. 

In reference to the colors used in some of the codices, it it 
possible that they were derived from the general habit or cus- 




a of ascribing colors to the different part of the sky. Dr. 
Brinton says: ■' In Mexican philosophy the world was dividtd 
into three parts: the earlli below, the heaven above, and man's 
abode between. The whole was represented by a circle divided 
into three parts; the upper part painted blue; the lower, brown, 
and the open p iri between, white. Each of these were again 
divided into three parts, making nine. When ihe Te:(tucan 
king built a tower of the universe, he called it the "Tower of 
Nine Stones." 

According lo Aztec mythology the heavens were thirteen 
in number, and thirteen divinities ruled over the world. The 
Quiches believed that thirteen was the number of the first 
rs. and they were divided tiuo thine n gentes. Mr, 




u 



■46 



THE AUERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



1 



Gushing speaks of the number thirteen as common among the 
Zunis, as the division of the sky above and (he earih below 
into fix parts each, make twelve, and ihe center, where the 
heavens and the earth meet, made the thirteen: exactly as the 
Chinese make nine the meeting point, the sky being divided 
into four parts, and the earth into four parts. This fumishei 
us with another analogy between the codices and the symboli 
which are common elsewhere. The Chinese had twenty-four 
mansions, and twenty-eight constellations or lunar mansions. 
A stone at Copan is in the iorm of a hemisphere. On the 
top are symbols which correspond to the Ying Yang o( the 
Chinese. In the center was a cup-shaped depression; around 
the circumference was 
a ring divided into 
twenty parts, corre- 
sponding to the twenty 
day s of the M aya 
month; across the top^ 
top was a curved line. 
while the symbol of 
the Ta Ki adds a third 
third arc, making a 
triskelis. The triskelis, 
suastika, and the cross 
are closely allied; they 
represent the move- 
ments of the sun with 
reference to the figure 
of the earth, and are 
understood by primi- 
tive man everywhere. 
We find the same fifiu- 
rative symbolism in 
China. India. Lycia, 
Assyria and Egypt, 
and on ancient urns in 
Etruria, Iberia and 
Scythia. It should be 
acknowledged that the 
priests did have hieroglyphics which were unknown to the com- 
mon people. Benaventura, in 1670. said that among the inven- 
tions of the hero god Itzemna. was that of letter?. Cogolludo 
(17th century) says they had characters which they could under- 
stand. Landa says the people had letters with which they wrote 
in tneir books their ancient matter. Dr. Brinton says: "The 
graphic system of the Mayas was ven- different from that of the 
Amccs. though we have more Ai'ec than Mava codices." The 
natives of Yucatan made use of the characters and letters with 
which they wrote out their histories, their ceremonies, the order 
the sacrifices to their idols, and their calendars in books made of 




COMPARISON OF CODICES WITH PICTOCRAPHS. 



147" ' 



of bark. These characters were understood only by the priests. 
Father Sahagun wrote a thesis on the judicial astroloKy of ihe 
ancient Mexicans, Still there are so many pictogr^phs in the 
codices which relate to ordinary affairs, that we arc able to inter- 

{>rct Ihem, even when we cannot decipher the hieroglyphics. 
Vc have also the days and weeks and months, and so on, given 
us by dots which are equal to numerals; the four points of 
Ihc compass represented by certain hieroglyphs, and the calen- 
dar represented by animal figures or pictograptis. 

Boturini has given to us the symbols for the four points of 
the compass and the four elements: Techpatl equals lire, also 
the south; Calli equals the earth and east; Tochtli equals the 
ait and the north; Acall equals water and the west. Herrera 
says they divided the year into four signs — a house, a rabbit, a. 
cane, and a flint — and by them they reckoned the year, as it 
passed on; saying such a thing happened at so many houses, 
Of so many flints, because their life being, as it were, an age, 
contained four weeks of years consisting of thirteen, so that 
the whole made up fifty-two years. 

(SI Another fact is important: the symbols for the days 



made up of such 




as were familiar to all, viz.: the 



C253 ^^ 



pent's head, the deer's head, the rabbit's head, Ihe bird's head, 
idog'shcad.anda flint; other object! which symbolize Ihe days 
*«e such familiar things, as the reed and the grass. Even the 
calendar stone contained such familiar things, as the grains of 
corn, reeds, serprnts, human faces, and towers, all arranged so 
11 to symbolize the time periods, as well as different creations. 
There were certain symbols for counting which consisted of 
bars and dots; each bar representing five; each dot, a unit. 

The serpent was the most common and expressive symbol, 
and had an important part in Ihe codices as it had tn the ritual' 
ceremonies of Ihc Zunis farther north. In some of the codices 
itts closely associated with the human figure, and may repre- 
sent the clouds, but in the calendar stone, it performed the 
Mtne part as the serpent did in the Scandinavion picture of the 
Igdrasil. the Tree of Life, as it formed the outer circle of the 
horizon . 

(6) There were in the codices many figures or piclographs 
which represented the ordinary industries, such as the plant- 
ing of corn, keeping bees, making paint, and carving. But 
llong with Ihe ordinary human industry there was a super- 
natural or divine activity, and nothing could prosper except as 
the two were united. Take for illustration, the picture given 
herewith, and read Ihe upper part from right to left, the line 




i 



T.: r.'i:^:.-> -n7::.vak:an. 



V : 



: r.gh: hand corner con- 
: y i/lanting corn; next, 

i • : -r-tooted creature; 
i z ' :. Thcfe are the 

- :.•:': lower line, a per- 
-:^ * it once a conflict, 

:"e person or guardian 
i'.z :-. h:s hand. Success 
: :-r ir. ": y means of the 

: 5 :;!■.-: n in connection 
: r ^ '.'tr. !;vi:e. 
-:'r=-~: The orotection 
ir.eivir.^ 01 tapestries, 




r-c nre. etc. 
5:::i. Next 



*- % : 



^^ im _^ ■ -. 


ir hs mingled 
"refer lo the 
: :he clouds. 


'.". -^ • - te 


c:r.5p:cuous 
r.^ :he Zunis 


^;< ^"e 


zi:z clouds. 


: " £^ * ~ 


? -.vhich seem 


i T T^ rr r 


'.'t.tv are sug- 
ine ordinary 



COMPARISON OF CODICES WITH PICTOCRAPHS. 



U9' 



To illustrate: in the Borgian Codex, there arc four feather- 
headed serpents or dragons, which have two legs and long tails, 
with a feather plume upon the head, the body divided into 
ihirtecn parts. These are arranged so as to form the four sides 
ol the square, the heads are in the center. But they have a. 
border of circles, making exactly thirteen in each Rcrpcnt. 
Tijfse may represent the thirteen years multiplied by four, 
making fifty-two years, which was the sacred astronomical 
cycle. This figure, taken with many others, shows that long 
periods of time were considered when the codices were made 
up. But whether they refer to historical events, or to natural 
events, is uncertain. The tendency with those who have studied 
the codices with this thought in mind, has been to magnify the 
time periods. Some of them have carried back the dates for 
many thousands of years, and have come to the conclusion that 




the Maya race began their history almost as early as the Baby- 
lonians, which was 5.000 years before Christ; such is the 
(■pinion of Mr, Henry Goodman. Dr, Cyrus Thomas recog- 
■liied long periods o< time in the codices, but has not held to 
fWreme antiquity. The best parts of his explanation are those 
'n which he describes the various religious ceremonies which 
occurred at the end of each year, and especially the end of the 
fiftieth year, in which the festival of the new fire took place. 
There were ceremonies at that time, in which certain images 

Ik carried to the gate and left there until the following year. 

""Me ceremonies are pictured out in the Dresden Codex, a 
fX in which each page is divided into three parts, the upper 
t representing a Chac, or animal with a long tail, carrying a 
ne on his back, with a peculiar figure in th« frame, la tbe 
i&iddle of the page, there is a figure, probably a priest seated 





THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



in front of a temple or a house, with a burning altar before him, 
and offerings in front of the altar. In the lower division is a 
picture of the image placed upon the stone upon one side, 
upon the other side, the innat-e of a priest, with a decapitated 
fowl in his hand, and between Ihem an aliar. wiih the numerals 
for nineteen above the altar, and wi>h giains of corn above, 

Tliis pictograph is repeated, with variations, in seveial of 
the plates of the manusctipt Truano, and undoubteuly refers 
to some religious ceremony, probably to the ceremony in which 
the images are carried to the gates. In one plate." the priest 
seems to be making an offering to a serpent divinity Dr 
Brinton desciibes this as follows: "A log folded in aroleand 
surrounded by the leaves of the Tree ot Life. In fronl arc 
seen the serpent's head, indicating the Hight of time; below 
tliis arc footprints, which indicate that lime is gone; beneath 
this is the sign pax, which means ' it is cnded,"*t 

There arc variuus hieroglyphics crossing the page in linei 
anti a column of numerals on the side, but the pictographs are 
mure conspicuous than the symbols, though the symbols of the 
cross-bones and the fire and the altar arc easily recognized. 
In one of the pictures, the Chac seems to be standing in what 
might be a boat, and carries a staff in his hand. 

(j) It is to be noticed that each divinity was to be identified 
by certain symbols, which are suggestive of the diHerenl opera- 
tions ot nature. The god TIaloc. who presided over water, 
was identified by a peculiar bulging eye; the god Quet^alcoall 
by a cross on his garment; the god Huiizilopochtli, the god of ,1 
death, by serpent fangs and serpent eyes. This method of 
representing personal divinities is similar to that which pre- 
vailed on the Northwest coast, where an animal is portrayed, 
such as a bear, and in every part of the animal's body and paws 
is an eye. The main difference is that there is a single eye in 
the Maya codices, while in the carved columns there aremanjr 
eyes. The figi^res of animals arc given in the codices, but in a 
great variety of attitudes; some of them most unnatural, TheK '' 
seem to be symbols, either of the nature powers or the con- 
stellations or the divinities. Dr. Brinton recognizes the dog, 
the spotted leopard, the jaguar, the deer, the armadillo, such 
birds as the macaw, the horned owl, the vulture, the parrot o[ 
quel;:al, the crested falcon, the pelican, the wild turkey, and the 
black bird. The vulture is seated on the Tree of Life. In the 
Dresden Codex, the horned owl appears associated with the 
god of death and war, and symbolizes darkness The falcon 
is associated with the Pleiades, the clouds and rain. "The 
symbol of the earth has been identified in a glyph by Dr. Brio- 

Two falling figures in the Dresden Codex represent the 
years— the dark one represents the closing year of one cycle; 



• In Mmuicripl Tro»o PUta VIII. 
IBr-BloB't -l'rln.«ar Ht.rotlTffcioi 



COMPARISON OF CODICES WITH PICTOGRAPHS. IJI 
i white one, the opening year of the following cycle. Ciner- 



nboLic 



i that the > 



epresentations 

had closed. 1 hese remind us ol the cuitom among the North- 
ern Indians to gather up the bones of the dead and preserve 
them in baskets. The cross-bones on the cinerary urns have 
evidently a significance. Some have thought that the calendars 
are primarily and essentially records of the motions of the 
heavenly bodies, and the figures and piclographs are to be in- 
terpreted as relating to constellations and planets, and that they 
indicate a knowledge of astrology; the dates for fixing rites 
and ceremonies, mythical narratives, cosniogonical tradition 
and liturgies, incantations and presCiipiions lor religious func- 
tions. Through this maze of superstition wc can thread our 
way. if we hold on to the clew which astrology can furnish us. 

(8) The zodiacal and planetary signs used by astronomers of 
the East, were not known to the aborigines in America, though 
there are certain rudimentary principles which were common 
everywhere. On the celebrated zodiac of Uendera, the date of 
whiih is believed to be about 700 B. C, the signs ol the zodiac 
are exhibited in a primitive form which leaves no doubl as to 
their significatiun. In this we see one symbol which represents 
the horns oi a ram, in another we recognize the hands and 
head of Sagittarius, in another we have the arrow and part of 
the bow of Sagittarius These were domestic animals, and were 
introduced after the time of the domestication ol animals. 
There are wild animals represented upon them — the crocodiLe, 
the behemoth, and other creatures. In the ordinary calendars, 
or geography of the heavens, we find the signs of civilization, 
not only the domestic animals, but musical instruments, such 
as the lyre, and the harp, also the sickle. At the same 
lime, at the north, around the pole, we find the figures of the 
great serpent and bear. The mingling of the reptiles with 
animals — wild and domestic, and furniture, all suggesting the 
idea that these symbols were of slow growth, and that they 
were really the symbols which indicate the progress of history. 

The Peruvians did not extend their division over the whole 
ipherc, they recognized only a few of the more brilliant con- 
stellations, like the Pleiades and the southern cross and the 
Standard and the jaguar. The Incas called the milky way, the 
"dust of stars," and gave to it different parts. What is now 
called the coal sack, was figured by them as a doe suckling a 
fawn, which reminds us of the Greek legend of Hercules and 
bis nurse.* The only planet which the Incas had discovered 
was Venus. They said that Venus being the most brilliant of 
the stars, the sun would not permit it to be separated from 
him, and obliged it to attend his rising as well as his going 
down, just as a king does his favorite. 

The mythology of the Babylonians was symbolized in the 

Ih P*pdu Sciau* HanthlT. 




ip THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

constellations of the sky. It may be that we shall find a my- 
thology in America in the codices, which will carry us back to 
the earlier period when the founders of the empires and the 
first Culture Heroes were living. The signs c^f the zodiac are 
however peculiar to the lands of the East, and there are no 
such constellations which were introduced, except those which 
are mentioned. 

Dr. Brinton holds that the constellations were known: the 
stars in Orion were known as the suns. Mehcn Hk, doubtless 
referring to some astronomical myth. The terms for a comet 
were '* a smoking star*' ; the milky way was call d the "star 
dust"; the Tea Ex, shooting stars, were called ''magicians 
pipes"; Chairal Izutan, the sun, when eclipsed, wes the *'sun 
bitten." Venus was the principal star or planet, and named 
special names— the great star, the strong star, the brilliant star, 
the companion of the dawn, the bee or wasp star, the guardian 
of tee skv. The North star was called the shield star, or. the 
stir on a shield. Dr. Schellhus holds that the Pole star is the 
god of the ornamented face, and is recognized by the ring of 
rays by which it is surrounded in the Cortesian Codex, also by 
its appearance in the constellation. In the codex Peresianus» 
the North star is seated on the Tree of Life. It is associated 
with a symbol of peace and plenty, and the pictograph where 
the b(*nehcent gods are drawing store from the vases. The 
pleiaile*^ were also recognized by the Mayas, as well as by all 
other tribes in America. 

Dr. Forstemann thinks that the snail symbolizes the winter 
solstice, and the tortoise the summer solstice. The frog is a 
well known symbol of water and rain; it is seen falling from 
the sky in the Cortesian Codex. The rattlesnake is the most 
common; it is seen astronomically in the sky among the stars, 
and probably refers to the clouds. The great snakes which 
stretch across the pages of the codices, mean time. Now, in 
all these 6gures. we find close analogies to the pictographs of 
the Northern tribes, though the presence of animal figures- 
along with human figures and the symbols of the cardinal 
points, of the days, of the weeks and months, and the hiero- 
glyphics, are features which are not found in the pictographs, 
but are in the codices. The connecting link between the picto- 
graphs and codices may, however, be found in the sand-paint- 
ings of the Navajos, and in the dances and sacred dramas 06 
the Zunis and other Pueblo tribes. 



THE ABSTRUSE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE NUMBERS 
THIRTY-SIX AND TWELVE. 

^H BV H. L. STODDARD. 



^" Much has been written about the mystery of prehistoric 
.man in Europe and Asia, as well as on the Western Hemi- 
sphere. Having recently complied some data which has a 
bearing upon the Discoidal Stone and Statues, uncovered near 
Menard's Mound, Arkansas, this article is intended as a sum- 
mary on that subject. It should be stated, to begin with, that 
a complete demonstration of the subject is not possible in so 
«lcmentary a form as that here proposed. 

This find was made in the spring of I901, by W. M. 
Almond while plowing on his farm, a short distance from 
Menard's Mound, which is located about eight miles from 
Arkansas Post (early Spanish settlement). The discoidal was 
covered with a bell-shaped stone, which fitted into the groove 
on the outer edge of the discoidal. Unfortunately, the plow 
share broke the stone into fragments, and Mr. Almond did not 
consider it of sufficient importance to preserve them. How- 
ever, I am informed that he subsequently recovered some of 
the pieces, which may aid in restoring the bell to its natural 
condition. I have the affidavit of W. M. Almond and also his 
brother-in law. C. M. Farmer, of the firm of W. M. Carpenter 
& Company. Stuttgart, Aikansas. After remaining on exhi- 
bition in the county clerk's office DeWilt, Arkan-as. county 
seat of Arkansas County, Judge John Allen, I am informed, 
forwarded same to the Agricultural Department at Little Rock 
<State capital), where they remained on exhibition several 
weeks; after which they were returned lo Mr, Almond, who 
subsequently received an offer from the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, and they were boxed ready for shipment to that institution 
when I purchased the same. The foregoing facts can readily 
he substantiated by affidavits of at least one hundred people. 
The Smithsonian Institution had a part of Menard's Mound 
excavated and secured a number of specimens, which were ex- 
hibited at the Worlds Fair. Chicago. 

The discoidal is wrought out of jasper beautifully engraved, 
showing symmetry and perfection of design. The face of the 
discoidal is in bas relief, and the outer edge contains 36 semi- 
circles, comprising one complete circle, with geometrical pre- 
cision. On the under side of the discoidal is a Phallic symbol, 
showing the "Yo-ni" conventionalized. The weight of the 
discoidal is 14^ pounds- The statue of the man is wrought of 
iasper, the same as the discoidal, and is in the altitude of 
prayer. It has a Mongolian cast of features, and has the queue 



i!< 



THE AMERrCAN ANTIQUARIAN 



clearly defined. The statue of the woman is wrought of marble 
and is in a sitting posture, with the emblem of the matrix IiIe^ 
ally portrayed; an Egyptian style of head-dress is indicated, 
The statue is eroded on account of air percolating underneath 
the bell-shaped cover, and is entirely covered with crystals or 
silicates. The statue of the man was kneeling in front of the 
woman, and they were found upon the discoidal covered by the 
campulateil stone. The statue of the man, as well as the dis- 
coidal, shows well-defined patina. 

Referring to the article. " America the Cradle of A'.ia." by 
Stewart Culin (Harpers Magazine. March, 1903) 1 find that 
the "Game of Paiollt." as played by the Aztecs, has 36 prtnci- 




DISCOIOAL sruNE— 't 



RIes, counting from north to south, or east to west, and difle 
wm the " Game of Pachisi." as played by the Hindus in th 
fact that each o( the four quarters of the globe, as represented 
by Pachisi, has 36 principles. As Prof. Culin aptly states 
"The games suggest a common origin, and are not only alik< 
in externals but id their morphology as well," and it may b^ 
added, they extend over in Asia from Amenca as expression^ 
of the same underlying culture, they belong to the same cuH 
ture. 

Tht (iJKoidal upon which the two idols rested has 36 pria- 
ciptes o( half circles composing one full circle. Half circled 
symbolize the moon with the ancients of China and Anam, aj 
w«U ks Chaldea and Egypt. The emblem upon the undersitk 



J 



THE ABSTRUSE SIGNIFICANCE OF 86 AND V2. 15; 

of the discoidal strongly indicates a metamorphosis of the 
Tah-Gook. The half circles, or moon symbols, engraved upon 
the discoidal evidently had some special significance in the 
mythology, religion, or customs of the ancients. They may 
have marked the period of time (as a sun dial), or the number 
of sacred observances. The Tah-Gook of China, Korea, and 
Anan have 36 principles, and altars found at Copan, Central 
America, have 56 hieroglyphics cng aved upon the top of the 
altar enclosed in a cartouche. That there is a distinctive 
analogy between tne foregoing games and symbols, no one will 
dispute; that they were of common origin, 1 will draw the veil 
of modesty and allow others to deduct their own conclusions, 




The abstruse significance of the number 36 may be synop- 
'tized as follows : 

~Tbe Carved Hiidah Sticki tiavr four suits of nine eac 

Korean Playing Catdi 

Chinese " " (money cards) 

T>aIolla, counting from E. to W,, or N. to S. have Cast 
F-achisi. ■* '■ E,to W..orN.toS. " 

(On each section of Diagram.)* 

Altar stones of C. A. at Copan, have 36 principles en- 
-lOsed in a cartouche. f The Chinese Monad and the Korean 

■ "ABHiia Ibi Cndl* of Aiin," by Slewin Culia, HupEr-i Ma(uiDe, Manh, 1903. 



THE AMEUOUI AXTIQUAMAH. 

■tioaal € i o fc4 «M ,i of Korea, each have eight dia- 
p o pcipha.* Fob-Hi's Philosophy is 
I Iqr c>e^ di^iaas o( 36 pfiDctplcs. Within the 
citjr limaaa ol Haa^ Cl»w. Ckiaa. are eight large and very 
ancicBt stsoct, OS whidi aie cagravcd the "eight diagrams " 
that osoallj- ttxampaay tfac Cbmcsc emblem.-f 

Or. Fontct H. Jamiags. late oE the Korean legation at 
Wadingtoa. sajs ot the Tah Gook. after a careful investiga 
ttoa of Korean Cl as s i c al Woilcs : " It is louod on graves dating 
back tfaoasaods of yean before Christ, and ia every kind of 
climate, fma the rattaa grorcs oi Anain, to the icy shores ol 
Vezo in the oofth of Japan." Ancieat Egypt had N'omes lo 
tlie DunibcT of thirty-six. and the Dtscoidal Stone, found with 
the images, and which they were testing upon, has semi-circles 
to the numl»er of tfaiity-six. 

The primaiy conception of the numbers ^ and 12 by the 
Babylonians may be exemplified as follows : In the zodiac the 
sun had twelve bouses, his proper home was in the sign of Leo. 
So likewise the planets pass through twelve stages in their 
jouroey. each sign or *'housc," through which an orb passed, 
became a seat of divine power, and the planets themselves were 
gods. With these, thirty of the fixed stars were associated as 
•' counselling gods " ; while twelve others in the Northern sky. 
and twelve in the South were called "the judges. As many of 
these were above the horizon, decided the foitunes of the liv- 
ing, while those below, the limit of night decided the fate of 
the dead, J Here we have twelve. 1'. e„ the twelve signs of the 
irodiac through which the planets (six, including the earth) 
passed- We aUo have the thirty "counselor gods" of the six 
planets, which added together equals 36; following which we 
l.ave the twelve judges in the north, and twelve in the south, 
which equals 24; adding Ihc two together, the correlation 
would be 360*, which the twehe signs of the zodiac was divided 
into: 34 Parassangs or 720 Stadia. The gods (planets) num- 
bering six, and "counselor gods" numbering thirty, equals 16, 
to which if added the twenty-four judges, we have 60 equafii) 
the Soss, which squared (60x60) equals 3.600 years, the Baby- 
lonian Sar. The corrolary would apparently indicate the 
origin of 36, as well as the horography and horometry of the 
Chaldeans, 

That the engraved discoidal was ever used as a sun dial or 
measure of lime is problematical, that it could have been used 
as such, accurately, is a self evident fact. That there is a dis- 
tinctive analogy between the discoidal. Babylonian time, lati- 
tude and longitude, and the Maya calendar, is certainly pos- 
sible. It is a pretty t,robleni. and much thought may be given 
to the elucidation of the ratio, analogy, and homogeneous 




r 



THE ABSTRUSE SIGNIFICANCE OF 8n AND VI 157 

details. The philosophical elaborations and coincidental con- 
oections may be synopsitised as follows: It is possible (hat 
America was peopled by ancients whose civilization was prior 
to the cataclysm, and whose culture, art and religion under a 
centralized government antedated a time when the first stond 
of Jcruselem had not been laid, and even ancient Habylon had 
not been conceived. The substaniiative evidence strongly in- 
dicates that the American Continent was peopUd by a branch 
of the great Turanian family (statue of man has pigtail clearly 
defined), that they were far advanced in the philosophy of 
religion, in that they personified their gods and goddesses, hav- 
ing tutelar deities- The statue of the woman is a strong indi- 
cation of " I'hallic worship," and when taken in connection 
with the symbol of the '" Voni conventionalized," which is car 
graved underneath the discoidal, almost precludes any doubt 
of Sacerdotalism of a Phaliic nature. The statues indica,te 
that the religion of I'hallicism practiced by the Assyrians, 
Fhcenicians, Kgyptians and Hindus, had its devotees also in 
America. The same belief existed in Central America, The 
Mayas having their goddess of regeneration. The analogies 
are found in the gods and goddesses, as follows : Egypt, Osiris 
and Isis: ChaJdsea. Asshur and Istar, and also Bel and Bcltis 
^given in Herodotus as Melitta, meaning "The Lady"), An 
equivalent to Nana or Astarte of the Phcenlcians. The same 
belief is manifested and is to-day practiced in the temples of 
India, whete the Phallic symbols literally carved, are bowed 
before by reverential devotees, without a thought prurient or 
unclean. 

Again quoting Stewart Culin in his article. "America the 
Cradle of America": '"The Asiatic forms, of which there are 
many, are all existing along lines representing a development 
from than towards America If the relation be that of parent 
and child, the parent it would seem is here." Considering 
the recent discovery of Cave Men rdics in the Ozark Moun- 
tains of Arkansas, the accompanying evidence and the admit- 
ted culture of the people whose hands wrought the geometrical 
designs upon a Discoidal Stone and symmetrica! outlines of the 
images, the corrollary of the sum total as indicated, plact s 
America, or the Western Continent, as proto-Asiatic in culture 
aad symbolism, at least to some degree. 

1 wish to go on record as absolutely opposed to the theory 
of the images, or their prototypes, ever having been used or 
intended for common pipes. 

In explanation of the diagram, it should be stated that the 
time indicated by the Gnomon on the dial would not be cor- 
rect as indicated bv our clocks; i. r.. should thq shadow of the 
Gnomon indicate 12 on the dial, it would not be 12 o'clock, but 
S o'clock, as the dial is geomcirically divided into 36 periods 
of time, instead of 12, as our clocks arc, hence each half circle 
represents a flight of sun time of ten degrees, two-thirds of 



THE ABSTl 

4ioth linear and timi 
iun'sdisc equals tw 
*ai found that the . 
scribed its own orbi 
Of ^4 meridians. A 
or one parasang. or 
;,Osladia equals one 
equals 24 hours, 24 
the sun's disc, or 36 
eijuat to 360 degre 
minutes, or go degi 
degress; 20 minute 
equals one degree. 
After acc|uiring 
(lie Babylonians ma] 



dividing the same i 
"lling the same th. 
d'vided each sign ini 
"ch month; having 
parts, after the twelv 
'« SIX planets and 
««nie fixed in iheii 
»iU be shown, the fig 
CMipicuous in the tr 
"« "nit of linear me 
,51's; a cubit repre 
'nchcs, divided by 1- 
«« equals 210 yar( 




i6o 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



feet, or one parasang linear measure, three miles and 58.100th, 
the distance an active foot courier could walk within the time 
the sun described its own disc thirty times. 

A Babylonian cycle contained sixty years, and was called a 
Soss, which they squared (60x60 = 3.600) and called a Sar. 
It is significent to note the analogy between the Babylonian 
soss, a cycle of sixty years, and the cycle of Cathay, also of 
sixty years (Chinese cycle). The Babylonian sar, which was 
the square of 60, equals 3,600 years, and applying the same 
method to the cycle of Cathay— 60x60 — we have 3,600 years. 
A reasonable construction to place upon the significance of the 
** 36 principles" of the great Chinese Monad, Central Anierican 
altars, or Japanese Tah-Gook. would be that each principle 
represents 100 years, or possibly 10^ of the 30^ which each 
sign of the zodiac was divided into by the Babylonians; the 
sexigesimal system of time being used by both the Chinese 
and Babylonians, and the Hindoos and Central Americans 
having the same divisions of time, their calendars having the 
same divisions, /". e., eighteen months of twenty days each, one 
secular year; and thirteen months of twenty days each, a sacred 
year. The conclusions may be strengthened, when we con- 
sider the knowledge of the fact that the Babylonians and 
Chinese, as well as the Hindoos and Egyptians, all had and 
still have, the same signs of the zodiac. The ^reat Monad 
possibly signifies the square of the cycle (60 x 60 ^= 3.600 years), 
and equal to the sar of the Babylonians. The duodecimal and 
sexigesimal systems of notation made themselves manifest in 
the minds of the ancients of Asia in a multifarious and multi- 
fidous manner, and were salient features in the chronicles of 
our Asiatic progenitors. Having enumerated 36, we will now 
pass to the "abstruse significance" ot the number 12. 

Yoga, the Sankhya philsosophy of the Hindoos, has eight 
stages and eight great powers; one of the powers being 
acquired by muttering the syllable Om 144,000 times. The seal 
being: placed upon the forehead of 12,000 of each of the 
Twelve Tribes of Israel, in four groups of 36,000 each * There 
were twelve tribes of Israel and twelve wells of Elim.f Twelve 
pillars and altars, according to the twelve tribes of Israel, under 
Mount Sinai. J The Ephod (Sacerdotal habit) having two 
stones in front, on which were engraved the names of the 
Twelve Tribes of Israel § The City of Heaven, as revealed by 
John, lieth four square, and the length is as large as the breadth, 
and he measured the city with the reed 12,000 furlongs (1,500 
miles, English measure); he measured the walls thereof an 
hundred and forty and four (144) cubits (252 feet English 
measure) According to the measure of the man, that is, of 
the Angel.,, And the walls of the city had twelve foundations, 



* Revelation vit;4.' 

♦ Exoduv xv:a7. 
\ Exodus xxiv:4. 



$ Exoduit xxviii.a. 

ji Revelation xxi:i6-i7. 



THE ABSTRUSE SIGNIFICANCE OF 86 AND IV 

and in them the names of the Twelve Apostles of the Lamb. 
And the walls were great and high and had twelve gates, and 
at the gate twelve angels, and names written theteon, which 
are the names of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. And the foun- 
dations of the walls ot the city were garnished with all manner 
oi precious stones. The first foundation was jasper: the second, 
sapphire; the third, chalcedony; the {ourlh, emerald; the fifth, 
sardonyx; the sixth, sardius; the seventh. chrysolite; the eighth, 
beryl; the ninth, topaz; the tenth, chrysoprasus; the eleventh. 
jacynth, and the twelfth, amethyst; and the twelve gales were 
Iwelve pearls, every several gate was one pearl; and the streets 
of the city were pure gold, as it were transparent glass." 
Ephiphany the twelfth day after Christmas and birth of Christ.f 
There were twelve miracles wrought in Hgypt: Aaron's rod 
turned into a serpent, bringing on the ten plagues of Kgypt, 
and parting the Red Sea during Ihe Exodus, total Iwelve 
miracles. Christ had twelve apostles and appeared twelve 
times after His resurrection, The covering of the King of 
Tyre contained twelve stones J The breast-plate of the High 
Priest contained twelve sloncs as ornament.s.g Twelve spies 
were sent to the land of Caanan. Twelve curses were pro- 
nounced on Mt. Ebal."' The Chaldeans were known in the 
Bible as astronomers: "Let now the Asirologers, the Slar- 
gazers. the Monthy Prognosricators, siand up and save Ihee 
from these things that shall come upon thee.** A significant 
miracle was the return of the shadow on the sun-dial of Aha?.. 
Isaiah returned the shadow on the sun-dial lO"-', as a sign that 
Hezekiah should be healed and his life extended fifteen years.tt 
Ancient Allica had' twelve townships. The twelve Etruscan 
and Ihe twelve Latin towns of I'elasgi correspond with the 
twelve townships into which Attica was divided, as well as the 
twelve Ionian, twelve Eolic. and iwelve Doric ciiies of Asia 
Minor. Rcme had twelve Tables of Laws, and the Assyrians 
twelve major gods. 

The writer does not wish to cover the matter here pre- 
sented with a panoply or bulwark of defense, but wishes lo 
offer the homogeneous earmarks for what they are worth. In 
brief, the foregoing may be commented upon as follows; Why 
was .the first stone of the City of Heaven, as revealed by John's 
Revelations, jasper, unless for its compactness, strength, and 
durability, as used by the Babylonians, and being less suscepti- 
ble to chemical action or erosion? Why does the figure 12 
present itself so freijuently and conspicuously in the history of 
man. unless the origin was the twelve moons, the basis of the 
Chaldean astronomy and system of measuring time, and per- 
petuated to the present day in the Ptolemaic System ? Grant- 
ing that the Chaldeans looked with favor upon jasper, as c 




1 62 



THE American antiquarian. 



of the twelve precious stones, why is it not reasonable to 
assume that the Ahaz sun-dial was wrought of jasper, and as it 
was marked off in periods of the same length of time {i,e lO^) 
as the jasper sun-dial of America, why is there not some con- 
nection? if not, why not? 

It is interesting to note the apparent connection between 
the Discoidal Stone and the Babylonian measure of time, the 
Maya calendar, and latitude and longitude. The Maya calen- 
dar has twenty days in a secular month, and eighteen months 
in a year (360 days). The Babylonian measure of time, con- 
sisting of twenty-four parassangs and 720 stadia, has never 
been changed or improved upon, even escaping during the 




90** -^6 hours; 6 hours =360 minutes; 15^—1 hours; 5^=20 minutes 
4 minutes = i degree. 

Each half circle ^^10^; 36 half circles comprising one complete circle 
of 360**; hence, each half circle'-^ 40 minutes. 

Maya Calendar, 20 days=^ i morth, 18 months ^^^ i year or 360 days. 

DIAGRAM OP DISCODIAL. 

French Revolution when the metric system was put into vogue. 
Why they were allowed to continue, is a question unanswered. 
The diagrams indicate the comparative ratios. 

While the writer is adverse to using the pronoun I, he feels 
it incumbent upon him to designate the Discoidal Stone, and 
until a better name is offered, will call it the "Ahaz Sun-Dial," 
as the analogy is so distinctive in its concrete form as to almost 
preclude any doubt but that the two have a common origin; a 
more comprehensive study of the subject strengthens this 
assumption. 



THE ABSTRUSE SIGNIFICANCE OF 8f> AND 1 



ifij 



The Ring of Brogar, composed of sixty stones, would indi- 
cate the Babylonian measure of time, the number ot stones 
being equal lo the Babylonian soss (sixly years), also equal to 
ihc six gods (planets) and thirty "counselor gods" which equals 
ihifiy-six, and twenty-four judges, which added together equals 
sixty. The correlation would be the Babylonian measure of 
rime, as well as the horography and horometry of the Chal- 
deans. The analogy of Avebiiry Circle and Stonehengc, as 




^j^ll as the circles found all over the globe is clearly indicated. 
•^^^v. Stephen D. Peel. Ph. D.. says: 



(^ Tbe circle was also a symbol in Scandinavia. The tree shot up its 

^■"^Bches towards the sky; around Ihe tree, midway between the branches 
-|T|^ Ibe root, was a serpent, which formed a circle, with its tail in its moulh. 
ea which surrounds the land. Outside the serpent was 
ni. which formed the border of the horiion. There 
le tree. Now, this Tr-e of Life was the cosmic sym- 
ians. It was evidently borrowed (rom the Hmdoos, 



' 'Osrt 

range of r 
^ re three ro 



^»*t modified. 

ols of I . . _ . . __ 

ki Stonehenge.it c< 

. n. -■L»|lc^, which svmboiiied the earth with its horizon, exactly as thedouuic 

^"•<:le did around Igdrasil.lhe Tree of Life. There were double circles 

^nifd by standing stones at Geier in Pakstine; various localities of North 




i64 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Africi; io India, ind in South America. In South America they served as 
sun-dills. In Great Britain they served as temples to the sun. In North 
Africa, as places of sacrifice. It is very singular that these cosmic symbols 
should be so wide spread, and should be so similar in their character and 
especially in their significance. The idea that life was perpetuated by the 
union of the male and female was. of course, a common one and universal, 
but that it should be connected so closely with religion and embodied in the 
temples, is to us astonishing. 

The Tree of Life is very common in Americe. and in many respects 
resembles the one described in the Scriptures. This is illustrated, not only 
by the so-called rude architectural works, such as earth and stone circles, 
platforms and sun-dials, but by various relics which have been discovered 
here and there, in America, as well as in India. These relics have been 
studied by those who have a penchant that way, and compared to the sym- 
bols which are prevalent in China, India, and elsewhere. It certainly seems 
at times that the phallic symbols were thoroughly distributed on this conti- 
nent, and that they had the same significance as in India.* 

We quote further from Dr. Peet: 

The most interesting object found at Pisac, is the enclosure in which 
is the rock which served as a sundial, called "Inti-Huatana.** the pl^re 
where the sun is tied up. The entrance to the enclosure is through a door- 
way, by a flight of stone steps. Another stone, similar to that at Pisac^ 
overlooks the fortress in the ancient town of Ollantaytambo; another near 
Cuzco, within the circular part of the great Temple itself, also on the Sacred 
Island of Titicaca is another, made out of limestone rock. The sacred 
character of the edifices surrounding these, is acknowledged. They were 
devices by which the solstices and equinoxes were marked, and the length 
of the solar year was determined. Garcilasso de la Vega says there were 
sixteen of these pillars at Cuzco. It was the duty of the priests to watclv 
the shadows of the columns which were in the center of the circle. When 
the rays of the sun fell full on the column, and it was bathed in light, the 
priests declared that the equinox had arrived, and proceeded to place on it 
flowers and offerings and the Chair of the Sun. 

Acosla says that at Cuzco there are '* twelve pillars.** Every month, one 
of the pillars denoted the rising and setting ^f the sun, and by means of 
them they 6xed the feasts and the seasons for sowing and reaping, and for 
offering sacrifices. 

The Circle of the Sun at Sillustani has already been described. This- 
consisted of a pavement in a circle, surrounding an enclosure in which were 
two pillars, which were ia a line so as to catch the rays of the sun and cast 
their shadows. This resembles the circle at Stonehenge, and shows that 
that sun worship was attended by the same symbols everywhere. Mr. F. 
G. Squier says of the gnomon at Inti-Huatana that it is the best preserved 
of any.t 

The cumulative evidence bespeaks an analogy between the 
circles found all over the globe. The corrolary would be, that 
they not only symbolized sacerdotalism of the sun and phallic- 
ism, but, in many instances, have to do with the horog^raphy,. 
horometry, astronom}'. which had its birth upon the plains of 
Chaldaea. The synthetic hypothesis of the concomitant anal- 
ogies indicate that there was an exchange of culture between 
Asia and America, and that the discoidal and images are ai> 
example of Asiatic culture. 

•Th« American Antiquarian, Vol. XXI V,, January-February, 1904. 
fThe American Antiquarian, Vol XXV., May and June, 1903. 



USE AND DOMESTICATION OF»THE HORSE. 

BY ALFXASDER F. CHAMBERLAIN. 

In recent anthropological and archaeological literature there 
have appeared several very interesting discussions of the anti- 
quity of the use by man of ihe horse, its domestication, etc. 

In a paper read before the French Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science, at the Angers meeting, in August, 1Q03, 
Zaborowski discussed the question whether the horse had been 
domesticated in quaternary times ( R, de I'Ecole d'Anihrop. de 
Paris. Xlll.. 3573^8); Prof. Ridgeway has treated of "The 
Origin of the Thorough-Bred Horse" (Proc. Cambr. Philos. 
Soc , 1905, pp. 141-143); and von Negelein has published a 
monograph on "Das Pferd im arlschen Allertum " (Konigs- 
bcig, 1903), besides an article on " Die Stellung des Pferdes in 
der Kulturgeschichte" {Globus, l.XXXIV., 345349). Here 
belongs also R. Munro's article, '"On the Prehistoric Horses of 
Europe and their Supposed Donieslication in Palsontologic 
Times" (Arch. Journ., LIX.. 1902, pp. I09-143). 

The question of the domi-stication of the horse in the 
(quaternary epoch was raised when the investigations at the 
'■station'' of Solulit' revealed ihe presence of the bones ot 
more than 100,000 individuals of the horse kind, and the 
pictures of horses in the caves and grottos since discovered 
have furnished other data for consideration. At first, the gen- 
eral opinion was that at this period the horse could have been 
only a beasi of the chase for primiti\e man and a food-animal. 
Capitan, who, with Breuil. studied the animal piclog'aphs of 
the grotto of Combarelles, which include some forty figures of 
horses (C.-R. Acad. d. Sci., igof, and R. de I'Hc. d'Anthrop. de 
Paris, tcfii), holds that several of the horses there depicted 
"show clear signs of domestication." Among these are what 
srems to be a sort of covering on the back ol one; a " halter" 
about the neck of another; a diamond-shaped mark (brand ?) 
on the flank of a third, etc. This idea of the domestication of 
the horse in (Quaternary times is combaited by Hoernes in his 
book. "Derdiluviale Mcnsch in Europa" (Braunschweig. 190 ?). 
Hoernes believes that primitive man of the period in question 
hunted and captured horses (by bolas or lasso), much as do 
even to-day the Argentinian Indians the half-wild horses of 
their great plains, and kept them tethered about their " camp " 
till they were slaughtered for the purpose of food. This would 
.account for the exist«nce of a '"halter," and perhaps, also, of 
a "brand," or sacrificial sign, or " property- mark." Zaborowski 
declines to believe in the quaternary domestication of the horse; 
so. too. von Negelein. 

Zaborowski alleges the extreme rarity of the remains of the 
horse in the Lake-Dwellings, particularly in those of Upper 
Austria. This fact he interprets to mean that, as man came 




i66 THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

more and more to depend not on the chase, but on agriculti 
and his flocks for a living, the horse (up to that time used oi 
for food) ceased to serve him to any great extent even 
food, — had the animal been domesticated in the quatern: 
period, this scarcity in times subsequent wQuld hardly h; 
occurred. In neolithic times, then,'the horse was an anii 
slaughtered for food, or offered up in religious sacrifice, as 
the case with the primitive Greeks, the aficient Teutons (up 
the introduction of Christianity), the Kinns, etc. 

The fondness for horse-flesh in certain regions of Euro 
to-day may have neolithic and palaeolithic ancestry. As v*' 
Negelein notes, in the middle of the sixteenth century v/m 
horses are said to have existed ra the park of Duke AlbrecV 
and their flesh was much used by the Prussians for food, 
the time of the Orders horses were still beasts of the chas. 
With the Bronze Age the appearance of the animal (wi>h 
bit in his mouth) in an undoubted state of domestication 
numerously demonstrated; he was now tamed for saddle pu^ 
poses and as a beast of draught. The names of the horse 
the various Aryan languages indicate that the animal 
familiar to almost all the peoples of proto-Aryan stock. Mors 
over the ancient Aryans bficred up the horse in holocausl*^ 
sacrifice to their gods- The use of the horse in war was kno' 
to some of the Mediterranean peoples from very early timi 
but with the Greeks (not the Thracians) such employment ^^ ' 

general dates only from the period of the conflicts with tH ^ ^^ 
Medes ifnd Persians, in whose Asiatic home the horse had lorm ^^^n 
been known and so used. 

Rifige^ay expresses the opinion that " not only, as has be^ ^^e 

long observed, did the Homeric Greek drive the horse befoi ^::>oi 

they rode him, but the same is true of all ancient peoples. — -^•" 

Egyptians, Canaanites, Assyrians, Aryans of Rig- Veda, Un^"^ ^^ 

brians, and Celts " Indeed, Herodotus says of the Tran 

Danubian Sigynnae that they employed chariots because the ^ 

small horses, while unable to bear the weight of a man, wei^ 

excellent with chariots. The horse of the Sigynnae, accordii 

to Prof. Ridgeway, "tallies exactly with the abundant remair 

of the primitive horse of Europe, eaten in great quantities an 

delineated on antlers by the meo of the Stone Age." Frorw 

this primitive horse *' have been developed the cart-horses 

the Continent and these islands, whilst our blood-horses ha\*- 

come from an Eastern stock of slight build and smart appear 

ance.'* The Mongolian pony (representing the Scythian horse: 

derived either from the tarpan or Przevalsky's horse. Aft< 

pointing out that no indigenous horse corre.sponding to tl 

blood horse exists in China, or Farther India, and that Indi 

itself (incapable, as Marco Polo said, of breeding horses) w; 

** supplied with Mongolian ponies from Yunnan, or with Arab-^-^^ 

from South Persia; Aden and other Arabian ports/' styles tli^^^ 

/-r%mm0)||iy received opinion that the original home of the bloo^'^/ 




i 



THE DROOZ OF SYRIA. 



167- 



horse was in Arabia, "a baseless assumption." Camels and 
shc-asscs the ancient Arabs knew well, but not blood-horses. 
Job mentions the war-horse, but had 500 she-asses and not a 
single horse; and to the hosts of Xerxes, as Heriidotiis, 
records, the Arabs furnished everything but plenty of horses. 

Africa, rather than Arabia, is the orig,i^al hoipe of " the 
Arab steed," who turns out to be " a B?vbar/ horse." It was 
in the hunt and in war that the horse (practical'y -f-he male) 
appears first numeiously in the beginnings of national culture 
in Asia Minor and in Mediterranean Europe. To-day it is not 
considered rhic in Morocco to ride a mare, IT: Aryan folk-lore, 
the "white horse" and the "black horse" have played interests 
ing roles, as von Negflein has pointed out,-^there is also ihe 
"horse of the suii," etc. The story of the horse in human cul- 
ture has yel, however, to be written. A few chapters only 

e yet been composed. 



L__ y, 



THE DROOZ OF SYRIA, 

BV GHOM-EL-HOWIE, PH. D., SHWEIB, SVBIA. 



On page 210 of The American Antiquarian for May-June, 
there is a statement: regarding the Tlingit (Thiinket), which 
leads me to give a few particulars about the Drooz of Syria,. 
usually, but unusually called "Druses, " for there appear to 
be a striking reserublance, if not identity, among some of 
their doctrines. 

The Drooz existed in Syria, as an organized religious- 
community, for more than nine centuries. If in general 
tbey be illiterate, they are undoubtedly highly intellectual 
and physically strong. One of the seven g'overnors of the 
province of Lebanon is, and must always be, one of their 
number. Some of the wealthiest and most ancient aristoc- 
racy of Syria are members of the Drooz sect. Some towns 
and villages they occupy exclusively, but some others they 
share with Maronites, Greeks, Moslems, and Jews; but in 
all cases, as a religious community they i.solate themselves 
with punctilious rigidity. They may be willing to hear 
what we have to tell them about our religion, but about 
theirs' they will tell nothing, and they do not hesitate to- 
describe as false all reports which have been published 
touching their religious tenets; nevertheless, since 1860, it 
became possible for the curious to learn something of the 
Drooz religion. 

Tbey bold that the population of the world is a "con- 
stant quantity," neither increases nor decreases. "In the 
beginning" (whenever that was) human beings were lying 
about lifeless, like "inflated skin bottles." Allah then 
breathed into tliem life, and they lived, had being and be- 
gan to move, and ever since, for every death there has been 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAW 

a corresponding birth, aad bence transmigration of soultf^ 
from the dying to those that are about to be born; anc:^ 
hence they resemble the Thlinket. who hold "that souls o::^ 
ancestors are reborn in children, that a man will be rebonr^ 
as a man. a wolf as a wolf, a raven as a raven." 

My late grandmother aflirraed, innocently however, tbatH 
a Drooz widow with whom she lived, spread a sheep skitisi 
inside tbe room for a dog the family had, and otherwise 
strove to make the dog comfortable, for. peradventnre_ 
■ ' tbe soul of the deceased husband might have gone into it.' ■ 
If my grandparent's information is correct, which it doubt- 
less is, then the Drooz widow in question must have been ofT 
her guard, when she permitted such an idea and expression 
escape her lips and be confirmed by her conduct towards 
the dog. night after night. The Drooz religious authorities 
would find in such a case, if ever they became cognizant of 
it. a breach of faith for which no punishment would be too 
severe. 

Prom the doctrine of transmigration of souls, it is plain 
to the Drooz mind that all men. whoever lived or live, were 
present during the age when their religion was proclaimed 
and, consetiuently. all heard the invitation to embrace it; 
those who did embrace it. are ever reborn Drooz, and those 
who rejected it, are ever reborn non-Drooz. This 
conflict with the idea of the Thlinket that a man will be re-L 
born as a man. and wolf as a wolf, and with their own ideaJ 
which permits of human souls reappearing in dogs, etc 
Nevertheless, before the end of all things, conflict will 
cease and individuals will finally appear in individuals of 
tlieir own species, just as the Thlinket believe. 

And if it now happens that a man is born in a mouse. 
in a piece of iron, which a blacksmith must needs heat a 
hammer, it is only a punishment or giving the individual 
opportunity of expiating his or her sins. 

The fact that it is impossible for the Drooz to proseylize 
is based on two assumptions: First, that the author of their 
religion set a time limit for repentance and acceptance; and 
second, that the people of any age were present during the 
age of grace. This last assumption flows from the doctrine 
of transmigration. 

One of the chief founders and contributors to the liter- 
ary basis of the Drooz religion was Ali-el-Derzy, a native of 
Persia. He began his labors in Egypt, and this fact may 
serve as a clue to an inquiry as to whether the doctrine of 
transmigration among the Tlingit was in any way derived 
from the Orient. 

Modern education, notwithstanding the science of sta- 
tistics, touching the population of the world, has made no 
appreciable outward difference upon the Drooz miad ig.. 
relation to their belief. 



i 



aDdJ 

lai9 




THE STORY OF POMPEII. 



BY FRANK I. WALKER. 



npeii, though it offers many attractions to the curious 
cr. is apt to be somewhat of a disappointment to those 
whose expectations have been keyed to a high pitch by 
romances and semi-historical stories picturing the awful 
catastrophe of 79 A. D. Readers of Bulwer Lytton's great 
romance, for instance, do not always realize that the magical 
ciiarm with which the place is invested in the story, is but the 
charm of a fertile imagination and that the scenes and char- 
acters are not all historical, And so, as one wanders through 
ihose desolate slreels, bordered by ruins where lizards are now 
the only tenants, he asks what has become of all the splendor 
with which he was wont to associate the place. The answer is 
that much of the splendor never existed, and what did exist 
has been removed at various times. Pompeii is the mere 
skeleton of a city destroyed by fire and buried under volcanic 
ashes over eighteen centuries ago, and possesses an interest, not 
so much for what one can see in its streets and buildings, as for 
what these reveal to u* of the civilization that flourished there 
in the days of imperial Rome. 

The city was founded in the sixth century B. C, by an Italic 
papulation, the Oscans. who came from Campania in search of 
abodes. One cannot but admire the good judgment these 
people displayed in selecting such a site, for there are few more 
beautiful spots in all the world. The neighboring hills, covered 
With vines and olives, the Sarno river watering the fertile region, 
and the glorious bay, always noted for its fine oysters, must have 
drawn thither these settlers with an irresistable charm, such as 
the locality has exerted on many a people since that day. At 
any rate, they divided the landman elevation just west of the 
Sarno and sloping down to the Bay of Naples^among their 
chiefs, and soon a town sprang up, The rude dwellings were 
constructed of parallelopiped-shaped stones from the moun- 
tains near by, and must have been rather airy, as no mortar was 
used. 

About 424 B. C, the Samnites, extending their boundary 
toward the border of Campania, conquered Pompeii and ruled 
there for three centuries. They had acquired the arts of Hel- 
lenic civilization, and soon transformed the sooty Oscan houses 
into beautiful dwelling'!, built in the Doric style. The streets 
were widened and paved, and the town was adorned with stately 
temples and other public buildings. Finally, Sulla brought the 
prosperous little city under the sway of Rome, and from then 
until the time of Augustus, the place assumed the proportions 



170 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

which are visible in the ruins. During the latter part of the 
Republic and the first years of the Empire, the place was a 
famous resort for the fashion of Rome, and its environs weie 
adorned with villas of various noted politicians. Cicero often 
speaks of his property (Pompeianum) there, and others, such 
as Pliny, Statius and Pomponius Mela mention it f re quently. 
Strabo praises it situation, bathed by the Sarno, and no doubt 
the place would have become one of the most beautiful of 
ancient cities, had it nut been wrecked by the earthquake of 
of 6> A. D., and finally destroyed by the volcanx eruption of 
79 AD.' 

This eruption is regarded as the most appalling catastrophe 
of the kmd in history. The volcano, which had been quiescent 
for centuries and was covered with a luxuriant growth of vines, 
began its awful warning by a preliminary earthquake in 63 A.D.^ 
which culminated in the terrible calamity of 79 A. D. For 
several weeks preceding the latter event, there were, perhaps, 
the usual signs of the approaching disaster — dry wells, a pecu- 
liar taste to the water, and restless animals — but the inhabit- 
ants of villages at the base of Vesuvius evidently did not heed 
these voices of doom, pu^uing their daily round of life, with 
as little concern about all danger as animals ready for the 
slaughter. The result was, that when the fiery monster suH- 
denlv bes^an his awful work, the inhabitants were seized with 
consternation and many, in iheir bewilderment or their attemi t 
to sa\ e their \ ali:ab!es. were overwhelmed and left their skel« - 
tv^ns to tell ot their a^ful fate. 

The eloler riiny. a great naturalist, u ho was on a fleet in the 
ba\\ wen: as tar as Siabi.v to watch the eruption and to rescue 
a fricHvi. aiui lost hts life His nephew speaks of his death, 
and in a lettei tv'^a fricn^i. Tacitus, descrities the phenomena — tbe 
violen: aj^itaiion of the sea; day turned suddenly into night; 
5^1 eat b'avk olouvis above the volcano, riven continually hy 
streaks ot I i^htnirj:. and pec^ple everywhere seized with terror, 
thinkr.^i: that ;he eru: or the uorld was at hand. There was at 
?ust. a viense shower of ashes, which covered the town to a 
viepth v^: three teet, ard c*^^*^ *he majority of the inhabitants 
an oppottunjtv to esoa^^. Then came a deluge of red-hot 
jnunioe stv^nes. toV.oweol by another shower of ashes, and again 
b\ another >ho.\er v^t rapi'l: or pumice stones: leaving the city. 
At tho env* ot :h:ec viavs, burie^i to a depth of from twenty to 
thiitv teet 

v>ut ot the twensv thousand inhabitants^ it is estimated th t 
two tho;.sAiKi weie lost The con*.pvara:ively large number of 
those that esva;^<\: is oue to the tact that Pompeii is six miles 
sox;th v^t Vesi:\ ius i •.ercu'ancun:. c*ne and one half miles north 
ot the \otoa;)0. sutler eo even a more terrible fate, being buried 
\Mu^ei a NO*id ;v,ass ot Ia\a e^chty tee: thick, which to-day fur- 
nishes the tov:;':v?atJon tor the r:*s>dem city of Resina. On 
account ot the \vmj>urat;\eiy sn^all number of articles of 



THE STORY OF POMPEII. 171 

value found in the excavations, it is supposed that many of the 
i nhabitants of Pompeii, after the destruction of their city, re- 
f uined and dug their belongings from the ashes. Then the city 
was consigned to oblivion, and during the Middle Ages was as 
u i.known as if it had never existed. Strange to say, an archi- 
t«;ct, Fontano, in 1592 constructed a conduit from the Sarno to 
Torre Annunziato. actually intersected the ruins, yet no investi- 
gations were made. In 17.18, the discovery by a peasant of a 
number uf bronze utensils and some statues, attracted the 
i« ttention of Charles III., who ordered excavations to be made. 
Under these Bourbon rulers, statues and valuables alone were 
rescued, the ruins being left to decay, or covered up again. 

To Murat the world is indebted for the excavation of the 
Korum. the Street of Tombs, and many private residences. 
The man who accomplished the most, however, was Fiorelli, 
who look charge of the work in 1S60. After having made a 
minute study of the ancient city, he proceeded according to a 
systematic plan whereby the ruins are carefully explored and 
preserved. Most of the statues and valuable objects, as well 
«s the brilliant frescoiis, were removed to the museum at Naples, 
_*<* preserve them from the ravages of sun and weather. By an 
'ngcnious process of pouring lii^uid plaster paris into the cavi- 
"es left by decayed bodies, he succeeded in making casts of 
*he victims, many of which show by their attitudes the awfut 
^■'olence of the death struggle. Fiorelli died in iSc)6, after 
having excavated one-third of the city. According to his cal- 
culations, it will require fifty years more to finish the work, and 
will cost five million francs, or one million dollars. At present 
*here are eighty workmen employed, and the expenses of the 
*^Xcavalion are paid out of the sum realized from gate receipts, 
^^ich amounts to six or eight thousand dollars each year. 

Tourists on their way to Pompeii, before proceeding to that 
place, usually visit the museum at Naples, where they are en- 
tertained for several hours by the most curious and interesting 
•"dies. Room after room is filled with household utensils. 
■Urniture, locks, jewelry, and various ornaments in endless 
Variety, There are pies and cakes, baked eighteen centuries 
**go, which present the appearance of modern pastry left too 
'ong in the oven. Another attractive feature to persons inter- 
ested in archseoiogy, is the room containing the charred remains 
<*f papyrus manuscripts and wax tablets (codices), many of 
I*'hich can easily be deciphered by a student of Latin. An 
'ndex to the depravity and abandon of the time is the room. 
^Jpta only to men, where arc displayed obscene wall decora- 
tions and various household ornaments fashioned into lascivi- 
'^ws shapes. All of the objects on exhibition are eloquent of 
'he character and daily life of the inhabitants of that unfortu- 
nate city, and make a collection invaluable to the student of 
•^oman history, 

Pompeii lies sixteen miles in an easterly direction from 



172 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Naples, and is reached by a railroad that skirts the northern 
shore of the bay. To the left, as the train approaches the 
town, Vesuvius, rising in isolated grandeur, entertains the 
stranger with an occasional puff of smoke, as if to remind him 
of the awful power that made possible the object of his visit. 
At the entrance to the city, travellers are generally annoyed 
by numbers of guides (the Guide autorizzati private being con- 
spicuous), and one does well to pay no attenion to them, if he 
wishes to avoid trouble. Though guides are furnished (except 
on Thursday, when admission is free) English and American 
visitors usually experience great difficulty in finding one who 
can speak their language well. One may consider himself 
fortunate indeed, if he does not have to strain his ear and 
patience trying to understand a mixture of Italian, French and 
** pigeon" English. 

Pompeii is in the form of an irregular ellipse, with the larger 
diameter running east and west. The walls, a great part of 
which have been demolished, have a circumference of 8,529 
feet, or about one and three-fifth miles. The ruins are entered 
by the Porta Marina, one of the eight gates which stand at the 
termini of the four principal streets. Two of these main streets, 
the Cardo and another parallel one (not yet excavated) run- 
ning north and south, and two others, the Decumanus major 
and the Decumanus minor, running east and west, divide the 
town into nine '*regiones," which are indicated by Roman 
numerals. Each of these is subdivided into **insulae" or 
blocks of houses, indicated by Arabic numerals. The number 
of the region and that of the insula being written at each 
corner, and the houses all being numbered, facilitates finding 
any special buildirig. Thus, "Reg. Vd, Ins. 8, No. 5," means 
house number five in the eighth insula of the sixth region. 

The streets of Pompeii are straight and very narrow, the 
widest being but twenty-four feet, and the alleys fourteen feet. 
They are admirably paved with polygonal blocks of lava, and 
bordered by pavements. At occasional intervals and especi- 
ally at street corners, are large firmly-set stepping-stones, de- 
signed for use in rainy weather, when the water was sometimes 
several inches deep. On the principal thoroughfares are ob- 
served two parallel deeply-worn ruts, four and one-half feet 
apart, made by the hand-chariots used at the time. 

One does not see advertisements painted on the walls of 
buildings, as in modern cities, but here and there, in conspicu- 
ous places, are notices in brilliant red letters, referring to the 
election of municipal officers, and recommending some indi- 
vidual for aedile or duumvir. Occasionally the smooth stuc- 
coed surfaces are decorated with rough comic cartoons — evi- 
dently the work of street arabs, who seem to be as prevalent 
then as now. Occasionally a " phallus," designed to avert the 
evil eye. peeps from its position above the door, and large ser- 
pents, the emblems of the Lares, gods of the hearth and cross- 



THE STORY OF POMPEII. 



173 



ings, are common. On some of the buildings, used for evil 
purposes, and strange to say, on most of the barber shops, are 
suggestive emblems, such as those seen in one of the rooms of 
the museum at Naples. 

A noticeable difference between ancient and modern build- 
tigs, is the lack of windows in the former. There being no 
""ms at that time, the buildings in this old city present to the 
set a monotonous surface, with few openings, and these arc 
Itted with iron bars. All are constructed of concrete, brick, 
or brick-shaped stones, e.xccpt the facades, corners and pillars, 
which are of large blocks of stone. The patched character of 
the work seen in many places, is probably due to the incorpo- 
ration of new walls in old bulk ings. The stairways seen occa- 
sionally here and there, indicate the former existence of an 
upper story. These have almost invariably been destroyed, 
however, owing to the projection ot this part above the super- 
i ncumbent mass which protected the rest of the building. 

It seems that the Pompeiians loved plenty of pure water, 
for at all of the principal street corners are large stone foun- 
t^ns decorated with a mask or the head of some god. On the 
^dge of the basin of one of these are indications of the (re- 
C| wency with which the fountains were visited^lwo transverse 
erooves, worn by the hands of thirsty passers-by as they leaned 
ovw and drank from the spout! 

There are many evidences thai 
<=ily, and that it carried on a large 1 

• a.rger buildings are provided with 
I^'Ving the lower story next the st 
'^lunication with the rest of the houi 

^[^any being but twenty feet square (such as one sees in Venice). 
Some have an apartment at the back used for a sleeping room 
"y the shop-keeper, or designed, in the case of restaurants, for 
^ ining-rooms. It seems that wine was an important article of 
*>"ade, there being numerous counters fitted up for its sale; 

* tiese occupy a conspicuous position next to the street, and con- 
sist of a solid maso ry in which are imbedded earthenware 
^^^ssels of various sizes, so that the liquor could be conveniently 
*3 ipped out with a ladle and poured into the receptacle of the 
*^ ustomer— whether that were a jar or a stomach. Bakeries are 
5^0mmon and present interesting feature*. These is always an 
■ ■tiracnse brick oven and machines for grinding gtain. These 
' ^tter consist of tv^o heavy stones — one a conical piece, with a 
^^ fojccting base; the other hollow and somewhat the shape of 
^* r hour-glass, Ihe lower part of which fits over the cone, while 
*■ Vie upper part was used for the "hopper." The m'll was 
^^pcrated by means of a pole passed through the middle of the 
•"evolving part and turned round and round by two men. 

The residences at Pompeii vary in size and the nature of 
I *heir appointments, according to the means and disposition of 
I %1ie owners. There is the atrium, or first inner court, of the 



Pompeii was a mercantile 
etail business. All of the 
"labernre." or shops, occu- 
reet. These hive no com- 
ie, and are generally small. 



174 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

old Roman dwellings, entered by means of the ostium, aad 
where the man of the house received his clients and transacted 
his business with the world. Farther back, passing through the 
tablinum, one finds himself in another inner court called the 
peristylium, which was devoted to the private life of the family. 
The surrounding pillars, which give the place its name, various 
statues and a flower-garden in the center, make this one of tie 
pleasantest parts of the dwelling, and it no doubt was a favor- 
ite resort for parents and children. Sometimes there is yet 
another apartment, the Xystus, or flower garden, and also a 
portico at the back, but these are found only in the houses of 
the wealthier class. The atrium and peristylium are surrounded 
by cubicula. or sleeping-rooms, eating-rooms, the kitchen and 
cellar, all being noticeably small — a peculiarity arising from the 
fact that a Roman family spent most of their time in the open 
courts. 

Hall decorations are characteristic of Pompeii, and arose 
partly from the manner in which the houses were constructed 
and partly from the erotic nature of the inhabitants. There 
was very little marble used, and as surfaces and even pillars 
were stuccoed, it was thought necessary to ornament them witV\ 
frescoes. The pillars are usually painted with yellow or bright 
red, and the wall frescoes are in the same colors, harmonizing 
admirably with the brilliancy of the southern sun. Thcs^ 
pictures, found everywhere, represent various gods and god ' 
dcsses ( Venuses and Cupids being the favorites) and are indi 
cative of a passionate and pleasure-loving people. There ar^ 
artists in Naples who gain a good livlihood by making copied 
of these pictures and selling them to tourists. 

Pompeian houses have been named from their supposcci 
owners, or from some statue or painting discovered during th^ 
excavations, and each has its peculiar interest The House o ■ 
the Traffic Poet, for instance (represented in Bulwer Lytton'^ 
novel as the dwelling of Glaucus), is so called from two lepre - 
sentations found in the tablinum — a poet reading and a mosaicr 
of a theatrical rehearsal. Then there is the House of the Faum 
so named from the statuette of a dancing faun found in th^ 
atrium. In the case of the House of Marcus Lucretius, tb^ 
name of the owner was learned from a letter painted on tb^ 
wall, with the address, ** M. Lucretio, Flam. Martis. decurion i 
Pompei." The House of Pansa, occupying a whole insula ancj 
one of the largest in Pompeii, has been reproduced at Saratoga 
New York. 

One of the most luxurious dwellings in thecitv, is the HoU^^^ 
of the Vetii, which has been partly restored. The owners /^ 
this ancient palace, as one perceives by the electoral inscriT 
tions. were candidates for the municipal magistracy and w^*" 
evidently rich and powerful men— fond of magnificent apa^^ 
menls, good cooks and a well-stocked cellar of old Faleri^^ 
such as was the delight of Horace. The aristocratic atriu^ 



r 



THE STORY OF POMfEIl. 



"7S 



the spacious peristyle, the triclinium, the elegant exedra and 
(he splendidly-decorated cublcula — all attest the wealth and 
0|julence of the successful politician of the time. One no 
suoner steps within the massive portal, with its splendid deco- 
rations, than he is impressed with the peculiar magnificence of 
the old dwelling. He enters the atrium, that comtortab^ 
saloon where the man of affairs was wont to entertain his 
numerous distinguished visitors, and is charmed with the ele- 
gance that surrounds him on every side. 

On the walls of the rooms opening into the atrium, are 
numerous decorations, one of which is witty and pleasing: it is 
a representation of small Cupids vying with each other in a 
race, the result of which is that several of them, during the 
pursuit, are thrown on the ground with their legs in the air. 
Other paintings portray Cupids wearing garlands, as well as 
numerous other figures, such as Psyches, nymphs and Tritons, 
while in many, well-know fables are the subjects, .such as Hero 
and Leander, Hercules strangling the serpent. Pasaphae in the 
workshop of Daedalus, constructing the famous cow. and a 
struggle between Pan and Love In the presence of Dionysius 
Ariadne. 

One of the most pleasing parts of the house, is the great 
peristyle, with its statuettes, its numerous small "asins and 
flower gardens. The open space is surrounded by a vast 
portico, supported by stately columns and covered with stucco. 
At each end of the eastern portico, is an exeHra, or reception 
room, cleganiiy decorated with the ubiquitous frescoes; while 
under the northern portico is the triclinium, or dining-room, 
containing many fine bronze statues. If one could have step- 
ped into this room before that flood of ashes buried all, he 
might have seen the family reclining upon the couches about 
ihe three sides of the table, while slaves served them through 
the open space left by the fourth side. Indeed it seems as If 
the family should still be here, for there are great bronze chests 
untouched, and in the kitchen the boiler still is sitting on a 
tripod near a grid-Iron ! As one wanders through these silent 
halls and invades the privacy of these once-cherished dwellings, 
he is grateful to Time, that long-bearded old gentleman, who 
has pointed them out to us by chance, and who permits us to 
visit them without asking permission of the owners. 

There arc many other buildings here that merit study, but 
which most strangers arc obliged to pass with a mere glance. 
The large and small theatres, with their rude arrangements for 
scenic appurtenances, attract much attention. On the top 
galleries of the larger one. are rings for fastening the awning, 
or velarium, and near by Is an artificial lake to supply water 
for sprinkling the spectators in warm weather. (What would 
our modern women theatre-goers say to having their bonnets 
sprinkled ?) In the tickets used for these theatres, which are 
on exhibition at the Naples museum, is seen the origin of one 



176 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



of our common slang expressions. The tickets were of ivory 
and other hard materials, and were fashioned into various 
shapes appropriate for the users,— musicians receiving violins; 
fishermen, fish, etc. Those who were admitted free, received 
death's heads, and so were called by the term which we use to- 
day. 

The Forum, with its broken columns and decayed buildings, 
is a solemn reminder of the trant>ient nature of human institu- 
tions, and the magnificent therms, with their rooms for hot. 
cold, tepid and sudatory baths, ^all bare now of guests, save 
the darting lizard that finds a silent abode beneath the scat- 
tered stones, — speak of the vanity of mortal things. To the 
east of the city, there is an amphitheatre where 20,cx)0 specta- 
tors, at one time, looked upon the fierce gladiatorial contests 
in the arena and yelled with awful delight at the moans of the 
dying, but where the only sounds now are the moan of the 
lonely owl, or the hiss of the disturbed snake. 

In the Street of Tombs, that peculiar burying-place com- 
mon to all Roman cities, there is the Villa of Diomede, which 
possesses a strange interest, from the discovery, in the cellar. 
of the charred remains of eighteen women and children, who 
had provit^d themselves with food and sought protection here, 
but who were finally smothered. They were all found with 
their heads wrapped up, and weie half buried by the ashes that 
had sifted through the opening. The pioprietor of the house 
was discovered near the garden gate, with a large silver key in 
his hand, while beside him was a slave with money and valu- 
ables. It is to be regretted that casts of these bodies were not 
obtainec", the process not having been invented till a later dale. 

As the excavations proceed, many discoveries are made 
which add to the tale of horror told by this doomed city. In 
one of the rural houses near the Sarno, were found several 
skeletons of women with magnificent necklaces about the bones 
of the necks, revealing the fact that they were wealthy Patri- 
cians, who were, no doubt, surprised by the erurplion while 
attempting to escape. On December 30, iSSfj, Ihe Director of 
the Excavations discovered the impresses of some bodies on 
the right of the Stabian gate, and ordering plaster to be poured 
into the cavities, obtained four perfect casts — three of human 
beings and ore of a tree, the last of which led to an interest- 
ing, if not important, discovery, There were two men, — one of 
whom was lying on his side, the other, supinely.^and a woman 
flat on her face, with her arms extended; all evidently over- 
whelmed while fleeing from the doomed city. The tree was 
carefully examined and found to be the founts Xobilis. the fruits 
of which ripen late in the autumn. From the presence of large 
mature berries on the branches, the deduction was made that 
the eruption occurred in November, instead of August. 79, 
However, the consensus of opinion seems to setlk upon I' 
latter as the correct date. 




(PLORATION AND DISCOVERY IN BABYLONIA* 

BV ROBERT FRANCIS HARFER. 

Dr. E.J. Banks, Field Director of the Expedition (Baby- 
lian Sectian) of the Oriental Exploration Fund of the Uni- 
sity of Chicago, has reported that the excavations at Bismya 
jan on December, 25, 1903. and that they are now proceed- 
: to his full satisfaction. With the commissioner, one servant, 
j a consular kavass, Dr. Banks left Bagdad by carriage for 
lleh on December ii. December 13. in company with 
Idcwey, he spent examining excavations at Babylon, and on 
; following day he visited Birs Nimrud. The party reached 
wanieh on December 15, and presented their letter to the 
ittessarif. No obstacles were placed in their way, and the 
thorittes claimed that it would be unnecessary to take a large 
atd to Bismya. With two mounted and four foot-soldiers, 
d (our workmen from Diwanich. the party started for Bismya 

December 17, and on the second day reached the village of 
gban, the sheikh of the El-Bedin Arabs in whose territory 
smya is located. They were received hospitably by the 
lief, and on the following day Dr. Banks, with about twenty 
irsemen, spent a few hours at the ruin, which is three hours 
am the village. It was the intention of the Field Director to 
:gin the excavations with about forty men, but, on account of 
e numerous Monlcfik Arabs who had wandered north to 
tape the fighting about Nasarieh, the country is unsafe. 
:gban, who has been informed by the Turkish authorities that 
: *ill be held responsible for the safety of the party, was 
lulious and insisted that it would be unwise to remain at 
ismya with less than sixty armed workmen. On December 
ind men were placed at work upon two wells in what Dr. 
anks believes to be the bed of the old canal Shat en-Nil, and 
So of a later stream which dried up at the breaking of the 
inhieh dam. At the end of the second day one of the wells 
ached a depth of ten meters, when the dry sand suddenly 
ived in. nearly burying the workmen, and they were forced to 
landon this well. On December 24tti work was begun on two 
ore wells, and on the 25th, as he was arranging to send to 
ai for some water-skins and to establish a water caravan of 
veral donkeys, the workmen announced that the sand seemed 
oist, and at nine o'clock on Christmas morning — the best 
lirislmas gift possible — water sprang up through a hole made 
' a workman's pick, and the water was sweet. There was 

MBibrlMiwIa ceamH wilb DtVaiblJ^'worMt ^^ " "* = «l«" » ' f 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

great excitement among the workmen; ihcyran abuut the we 1 
dancing, singing, and swinging their baskets in the air. Tl». 
ticid Director was no less pleated than they, and he ordered 
sheep to be sacrificed for their baksheesh. A third well pr«: 
gressed slowly. On December 28th water was also found in «. 
Thus one of the difficulties which have kept excavators frt> 1 
liismya is settled, and there is every indication that the wat. ^ 
will suffice for every season of the year. 

Bismya is a very large ruin, only Nippur. Warka. and p^ 
hapn Babylon surpassing it in extent. Its height does not ^= 
cced twelve meters, but it is considerably higher than Tellcra 
I' ara, and other ruins where excavations have been successfii I 
made. The length of the entire group ot mounds, includi s 
a small low hill two hundred meters or so to the northwest .. 1 
1,695 meters; the width is S40 meters. In a general way, tih 
ruins form a rough oblong squaie. The square may be cle 
scribed as consisting of two parts, separated by a valley run- 
ning cast and west. The northern part, which is by far thu 
larger, is lined on its western edge by nearly a dozen high cir- 
cular mounds, as if representing so many buildings apparent// 
overlooking the canal. The hill gradually slopes away to the 
east, which Dr. Banks believes to be the old necropolis. The 
southern part is not extensive. Its highest hills are in Ihc 
southwest corner. Dr. Banks is of the opinion that the mound 
has not been inhabited since Babylonian times. There are no 
walls visible above the surface; the few heaps of brick which 
the Arabs have collected have been mistaken for walls. The 
surface of the mound is smooth, and has not been dug over by 
the Arab antiquity hunters, as have been most other Baby 
Ionian ruins, for Bismya is so far from water, and in so dange«" 
ous a locality, that a single man. or a small company of mer» 
could remain there for only a few hours at a time. 

Already a village has sprung up at Bismya. Scattered 
about the Field Director's tent are thirty houses with womc ■ 
and children: three shops, a carpenter, and a butcher; and eve* 
a street dog has found its way there. It is understood ih^ 
after the workmen receive their pay a great many more fam • 



lie 



nil a 



Excavations are proceeding with a force of one hundre:* 
men. As yet only the surface has been scratched, and in »* 
p'ace have they gone to a greater depth than two meters; btJ' 
wherever they dig they come upon some wall or tomb. TN* 
men. some of whom have worked in every rum in Babylonia- 
aorcc that Bismya is by far the richest and the easiest to 
excavate. The results which are so rapidly coming in are 
evidence of this. 

The Arabs have given the Field Director much trouble. 
There seems to be a dispute about the ownership of the site of 
Bismya, and the following letters have passed between thf 
F"ield Director and the sheikh of the Montefik : 



EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY IN BABYLONIA. 17Q 

LETTER RECEIVED FROM ABDUL RAZAK, SHEIKH OF THE 

MONTEFIK. 

Mr. Banks, American: 

We have learned that you are digging in the limits of our property 
and are bringing from the ground many things. Although, according to 
the regulations and the law, no one may touch the land of another without 
the consent of the owner, yet the land which ^ou now inhabit is actually in- 
cluded in the limits of our property, of which wc have in our hands the 
title deeds describing the limits. Since you have come to live in this dis- 
trict without our consent and without obtaining our permission, you are do- 
ing business and spending money with other people who have neither power 
nor right in this district, and who can afford you no protection. Moreover, 
as you are to spend a large sum of money, it should be with the original 
owners of this land. Now, as you have knowledge of this entire matter, it 
is for }ou to judge what is proper. 

(Signed) Abdul Razak ibn Fehad Pasha. 

REPLY TO TUli LETTER OF ABDUL RAZAK. 
To the most honorable Abdul Razak, Bey : 

Sir: We have received your kind letter of the 2isl in which you inform 
us that the land of Bismya belongs to you, and is included within your ter- 
ritory according to your deed. Until the present time we have been ignor- 
ant of this, and, moreaver. Sheikh Segban, sheikh ol El Bedin, to whom the 
Ottoman government, through the mutessarif of Diwanieh, has recom- 
mended us by letter, also asserts that he is the sheikh of this territory, and 
tnat no one else has a right to interfere with it. 

Consec^uently we beg you to send us your papers, that we mav study 
them and judge who is in the right. However, if you wish, you may also 
write to Sheikh Segban in order to settle the matter with him. 

(Signed) Field Director of the Excavations at Bismya, 

Dr. Banks, American, 

Bismya is an exceedingly rich ruin, and there is not a yard 
of it without something of interest. The excavations have 
already demonstrated what the ruins contain, and if funds were 
available to cmpioy several hundred workmen, not only would 
the security, which just at present is very uncertain, be perfect, 
but the entire ruin could be satisfactorily excavated before the 
expiration of the irade. The expense of the staff, which is by 
far the larger part, would not be materially increased. 



•>-«" 



DISCOVERIES IN. EGYPT. 

For many years, excavations have been carried on in 
various parts of E<jypt under various auspices, and this 
year is no exception to the rule. Among such as are now 
in progress, those of the University of California, made 
possible by the liberality of Mrs. Hearst, yield to none in 
importance. At Naga ad-Der, opposite the thriving town 
of Girga, Messrs. Lythgoe and Mace are bringing to a close 
the work begun several years ago and continued every win- 
ter. Here thousands of tombs have been opened, belong- 
ing to all periods from prehistoric times to the twelfth 
dynasty. The vast necropolis contains also tombs in an 
a,lmost unbroken series to the eighteenth dynasty, and close 



i8o THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

by are tombs of the later New Empire, of Ptolemaic and 
Roman times, while Coptic burials cover nearly the whole 
site. In the tombs of the prehistoric and early dynastic 
times the bodies were laid on the side and buried in a con- 
tracted position, sometimes with the knees almost immedi- 
ately under the chin. The bodies lay upon a matting* and 
were covered by a second matting. About the graves were 
twigs to keep the sand from falling in. 

The historical or ethnological results of the excavations 
at Naga ad-Der are interesting and important. Dr. Elliott 
Smith, after careful study of the human remains reaches the 
conclusion that the Egyptian race, as represented at Naga 
ad-Der, was one single continuous race from the earliest 
prehistoric times to the twelfth dynasty. This result, de- 
rived from anatomical study, confirms the same conclusion 
which the excavators draw from the archaeological evidence 
gathered from the same tombs. Dr. Elliott Smith's stud}^ 
of skeletons of other periods and skeletons of modern Copts 
leads him to the further conclusion that the continuity of 
race in Egypt persists to the present time. 

It is already evident that there are distinct periods in 
the histor}^ of the necropolis. The earliest period belongs 
to the third dynasty, the second to the fourth and fifth 
dynasties, the third to the sixth and seventh dynasties. As 
yet the extent of the cemetery at each period is not known; 
but, as the excavations advance, its extent as well as its 
character at each stage of its history will no doubt be defi- 
nitely determined. The excavations at Naga ad-Der have 
shed much light upon the development of the mastaba, and 
the knowledge gained there is of immediate use in the field 
by the pyramids. 

In the neighborhood of Luxor, excavators were busy last 
winter at several points. M. Naville. excavating for the 
Egypt Exploration Fund, at Der el-bahri, has found a small 
temple of the Middle Empire so closely resembling the 
great temple of Queen Hatshepsu, that it may well be the 
model of that remarkable building. At the Ramesseum, 
Mr. Carter, inspector of antiquities, is carrying on exten- 
sive excavations with the purpose of laying bare all the 
surrounding buildings. These are very numerous — so 
numerous and various that the site, when fully excavated, 
will probably be almost, as it were, an Egyptian Pompeii. 



PREHISTORIC CHINA. 

BV MIRIAM ZIEBER. 

Ages before man trod the earth his future home was 
preparing for hira; and long periods before such a thing as 
thing as a Chinaman was thought of, the region he was to 
inhabit was getting ready for his advent. 

Far back, in the prehistoric ages of mankind, a great 
"Stem" of the human family branched off from the region 
of the Caspian Sea, and slowly spread itself over what is 
now China proper. While Egypt was pyramid building and 
working mighty miracles by magical rights, China was 
slowly but surely laying a broad and deep foundation of 
industry, a foundation on which a superstructure of civiliza- 
tion was destined to be erected, less speculative but more 
(enduring by far than that of the Nile lands. 

It is said that Asia has been inhabited since the earliest 
Stone Age, so that, even if the time of Stone Age differs 
with different peoples, the ear/iest Stone Age must have been 
a long time before any historical record. 

The Egyptians claimed from two to three thousand years 
R. C. as their historical right; but the legends of China 
(which, of course, the Chinese have not considered legend- 
ary, but a true account of tbeir far back history) assert 
that Fuh-hi founded the Chinese Empire about 3000 B. C. 
Founded the empire, mind, not measured off the land to be 
occupied by some rude tribes hastening northeast from the 
Caspian. Now. an empire cannot be founded in a day, and 
when we are told that even in Fuh hi's time China's people 
were writing on tablets, and that she was employing her 
own artists and physicians, besides artisans of many kinds, 
the question naturally arises, " From whom did they learn 
all those things?" The vast country between China and 
Egypt certainly was neither inhabited by civilized peoples, 
nor traversed by travelers of either country 3(XXl B. C. 

Where, then, did the Chinese obtain their knowledge, if 
not within their own country? Writing and artistic work 
must be learned by slow degrees, and.perhaps some day we 
-shall discover far below the present surface of China's soil, 
buried cities whose antiquity may rival those of Egypt, and 
whose excavated relics may hold the clue that will unravel 
the deep silence between the ancient and the moj/aacient 
world 

Read what Stuart Glennie has written about the 
■ground race " in the inland sea. now the desert of Gobi; 
also what Rev. I. C. Black says about the Chinese and the 
Accadian language: also what other writers have said 
about Old Accadia as having been the original home of the 
Chinese, and what Prof. Hilprecht has said about the date 
of the beginning of civilization in Babylonia. 



L 



_J 



ANTHROPObOGlCAb NOTES. 

BY ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN. 

Ancient Latium. According to R. S. Conway ( Riv. d. Sior. 
ant., 1903) there were in this region two strata of population, 
represented by the Volsci and the Sabines. The former, lin- 
guistically Aryan, were probably quite widespread over Central 
Italy bef jre the invasion of the Etruscans or gens Lydia, — in- 
deed, the term Etrusci, Tusci, may have been coined by thcni 
Possibly they were not acquainted with iron until the commg 
of the Sabines, who, unlike the Volscians, cremated their dead. 
The Sabines came from the north and were already well within 
the peninsula, when their progress was for a time interrupte 1 
by ihe Etruscans and their V'olscian subjects. The early tribe 
of the Latini in the valley of the Tiber was interfered with on 
the north by their brethren, and on the south by the Volscians 
of Latium. — they were thus surrounded by tribes speaking 
other languages. Conway questions whether the Roman plebs 
was not of primitive Volscian, and the patricians of Sabine 
origin. This note is based on the brief abstract of the paper 
given by Giuffrida Ruggeri in the ** Atti della Societa Romana 
di Antropologi^" ^Vol. IX.. 190;). 

AxTHROPOLOo.Y IX Kdl'c\tion. The address of Dr. Frank 
Russell as retiring President of the American Folk-Lore Soci- 
ety, •• Know. then. Thyself" < Journal of American Folk-Lore, 
Vol. XV.. 1902. pp. 1-13), is an able appeal for the recognition 
of anthropology as a great and necessary factor in the educa- 
tion of the real student. It trains the senses, stimulate.s^ 
thought and discussion, ameliorates race-prejudices, checks 
self complacency, corrects over-specialization, begets open- 
mindedness. It is valuable alike to the theologian, the diplo- 
mat, the jurist, and the statesman. The author's arguments 
are enforced by his own personal experiences. Nor is the 
avowal he makes of his debt to the ** savage *• unique (page 6): 
"Old Peter, the Assmiboine. for e.xample. with whom I hunted 
big horn in British Columbia, taught me as much about observ- 
ing as any college professor ever did." This address should be 
good reading for all teachers. 

• • • 

Haricot Beans. In a paper read before the French Asso- 
ciation for the Advancement of Science at the Angers Meet- 
ing. August. 1903. Count de Ch:irencv put forward the view that 
karuc: the name by which the Pk.jseius vulgaris is known ii> 
French, may be derived from the Nahuatl aracad^ a term said 
to have been applied to the Spanish bean. But, as Zaborowski 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. i8> 

( R. de I'Ecole d'Anthrop. de Paris, XIII., p. 362) observes, the 
W'otd haricot {aricot, li.'ricaut) is much older than the discovery 
oC America, and could not possibly be of Mexican origin. 
DeChirency takes no account of De Candolle's earlier discus- 
sion of this word, in which he derives it from the Italian araco. 
the name of a leguminous vegetable (Aracus niger), from which 
i C easily could pass to the American bean. 

• « • 
_ Necropolis of Klicevac. The necropolis of Klicevac, in 
:=»en'ia, is of great importance in the archarology of south- 
eastern p-urope. It dates, according to Hocrnes, from at len^t 
2CD0oB.C..and Va^^sits (Rev. Archfoi., 1902; Giuffrida-Ruggei i, 
-^^.dc Soc. Rom. di Antrop., 1903) emphasizes the resemblance 
fc»«tween the culture there represented and that of Mycen^. At 
the "station " ot Klicevac are found together objects exhibit- 
ing the Mycenian style and the geometric style; from which 
f^ct it would seem that these two styles existed together in 
the north of the Balkan peninsula, and were imported thence 
into Greece, either by way of commerce or as the result of war. 
Nor is Greece itself without objects showing the contempora- 
»»eity of these two styles in the remote past. 

Race. The discussion, by the eminent Dutch ethnologist, 
^teinmetz, ot "' Hereditary Characters of Races and Peoples " 
< Vierteljhrsschr. f. wiss. Philos., Vol. XXVI., 1902, pp. 77 126) 
>s both interesting and valuable, not only tor the views ex- 
Ijgtessed. but also on account of the wide range of bibliographi- 
1 references. The author takes the general ground that 
£mpts to prove the existence of unique race-characters 
Mvebeen, as yet, unsuccessful. Races and peoples are differ- 
entiated essentially by the length of time they have been sub- 
"littcd t) modifying factors. America (the U. S.) is still a 
people, not a race, —it may never reach the latter point. Be- 
tween the " higher" {e^g- European) and the " lower" races no 
deep-set original differences exist. Such as do occur are ex- 
plicable as the result of favorable environments, selection:!, 
<tc. Those who exaggerate the characters of the highest 
Aryan peoples fail to pay due attention to the uncivilized and 
unprogressive peoples of the same stock. As Steinmetz points 
Out, the statements of the advocates of "race-heredity" often 
Cancel each other. This is the case, for example, with Houston 
Chamberlain and De Lapouge's estimates of the national and 
"■acial character of the Semites. Steinmelz's article is one ot 
?he very best of recent discussions of the questions involved 
'n the question of " race heredity." " higher and lower races," 
" Aryanism," etc. 

o • « 
, Saharan Prehistory. Norberto Font y Sagu^ publiihcd 
'Q the "Boletin de la Socicdad espanola de Historia natural" 
'or November, 1902, an article on " Los Kiokenmodingos de 



186 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 
i of Germany; 



Switzerland; on the spear-l^ 
coins of Gaza. Palestine; oi 
the gold ornaments of Denmark. 

The distribution of this symbol throughout the continent of 
America, is a subject which Mr. Thomas Wilson treats exten- 
sively. He shows that it is found upon the shell gorgets of 
Tennessee; on the copper plates of Ohio; and on the bead belts 
of the Iroquois and Sac Indi.ins, A modified form is found in 
the sand-paintings of the Navajos. Mr, Wilson refers to the 
discovery of an engraved shell in the Toco Mound of Ttnnes- 
see, on which was an image resembling the statue of Buddha, 
and thinks the symbol was introduced by Buddhists. Mr, W. 
H. Moorchead found many specimens of copper ornaments in 
the Hopewell Mounds. Among them were stencil ornaments 




CUP STOKR AT CINCTNNATI. 



of thin copper, cut in the shape of the clover leaf and the fish, 
giving the idea that they were introduced by the missionaries 
from Europe, and became mingled with those common among 
the aborigines; five suastika crosses; a long mass of copper 
covered with wood; eighteen single copper rings; a number of 
double copper rings; ten circular copper rings, with holes in the 
center; an ornament in the shape of a St. Andrews cross; cop- 
per plates; copper hatchets; pearl beads; a copper eagle; 
spool-shaped objects; one stool of copper; a human skul! with 
horns; a copper plate, placed on the breast of the skeleton; 
and an altar. This find is important, and does not decide the 
question as to the transmission of the suastika before the time 
of the Discovery. It would seem, however, that on general 

•ThicDi npnwati ■ rack fgund in SeuiberD Oblo, whicli ii dob in tbc Uuteunin Ciacia. 



THE SUASTIKA AND FIRE WORSHIP IN AMERICA. iS? 

principl<^s it is easier to borrow such symbols than to inveoE 
them. 

It should be said here, that the fire symbol, the phallic sym- 
bol, the horseshoe, the looped square, the serpent, and the cross 
were closely associated in American symboli-.ni. The serpent 
was divided into four parts, the number four reminding us of 
the four parts of the heavens. It is supposed that '.he serpent 
symbolized the water and cloud, and sometimes the lightning. 
The phallic symbol signified the life principle. 

The significance of the hooked cross in America is difficult 
to decide upon, for it is found in a great variety of materials; 
sometimes on the shell gorgets, sometimes on copper plates, 
sometimes cut into the rocks, and moulded into pieces of pot- 




tery. Such is the case among the mounds. It is here asso- 
ciated with the circle, the square, the common cross, the coiled 
serpent, and many other symbols. In fact there is scarcely any 
ordinary symbol which is not found in some form, in some ma- 
terial among the mounds. This shows that there was an ex- 
tensive system of symbolism which had either been introduced 
among the Mound-Builders, or had been invented by them. 
The description of these symbols is given in the book on the 
Mound-Builders.* 

In connection with the subject of the hooked cross as a fire 
symbol, it may be well to consider the various ceremonies 
which were connected with the fire among the aborigines. 
Dr. Washington Matthews h.is described a ceremony which 
prevailed among the Navajos. The ceremony took place after 



E 






188 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



nightfall, in the midst of an open circle. It appears that those 
who took part in it, had on only their breech-cloth and their 
moccasins, and were daubed with white earth until they seemed 
a group of living marbles. As they advanced in single file 
and moved around the fire, they threw their bodies into divers 
attitudes: now they faced the east; now the south, west, and 
north — bearing aloft their slender wands, tipped with eagle 
down. Their course around the tire was to the left, by way of 
the south. When they had circled the fire twice they began to 
thrust their wands towards it and throw themselves back, with 
the head to the fire, as though to thrust the wand into the 
flames. When they succeeded in lighting it, they would rush 
out of the corral. 

There were other ceremonies among the Navajos, in which 
they raced with firebrands in their hands, the brands throwing 
out long brilliant flames over the hands and arms of the dancers; 
they strike one another with the flaming wand, and sometimes 
catch "le another and bathe them in flame. The significance 
of this ceremony is unknown, but seems to be very impressive. 

The most interesting ceremony of the Navajos was con- 
nected with the suastika, or hooked cross, which was used, not 
so much as a symbol of fire, as a symbol of life. The cross 
was a part of the sand paintings and represented the common 
cross, but in different colors. On ihe ends of the cross, the 
divine forms stood, making the arms of the cross lie with their 
ends extended one to each of the four cardinal points. On the 
cross are figures which wear around their loins skirts of red 
sunlight adorned with sunbeams. They have ear pcii.'ants. 
bracelets, armlets of blue and red turquoise and coral, the em- 
blematic jewels of the Navajos; the four arms and legs are 
black, showing in each a zigzag mass representing lightnn^ on 
the surface of the black rain cloud. Each bears attached by 
a string to his right arm, a basket and a rattle, painted to sym- 
bolize the rain cloud and the lightning. Beside each one is a 
highly conventionalized picture of a plant, which has the same 
color as the god. The body of the eastern god is white, so is 
the stalk of the corn on the left; the body of the southern god 
is blue, so is the beanstalk beside him; the body of the western 
god is yellow, so is the pumpkin vine beside him; the body of 
the north god is black, so is the tobacco plant by his side. 
Each of the four sacred plants is represented as growing from 
five white roots in the central waters and spreading outwards. 
The gods form one cross, which is directed to the four cardinal 
points; the plants form another cross, but alt have a common 
center. On the head of each god is an eagle plume, all point- 
ing in one direction. The gods are represented with beautiful 
embroidered pouches, symbolizing the rainbow, or rainbow 
deity: one end of which is the body below Ihe waist, having 
legs and waist and feet and skirt, at the other end head and 
neck and arms. This is the rainbow goddess, which resembles 



HE SUASTIKA AND FIRE WORSHIP IN AMERICA. I8g 

the Iris of ihe Greeks. In the east, where the picture is not 
enclosed, are two birds, standing with wings outstretched 
facing one another. The blue bird, the herald of the morning, 
has the color of the south and Ihe upper regions; he is sacred 
and his feathers are plume-sticks. These blue birds stand 
guard at the door of the house wherein the gtds dwell. 

The colors, among the Navajos, arc sacred to the different 
points of the compass. The east is white; the south, blue; the 




^■1 NAVAJO SAND PAINTING. 

^Wtst, yellow; and the north, black. The upper world is blue, 
^nd the lower world, white and black in spots. 

This cross, formed by the bodies of the goddesses standing 
On the rafts, with the plants standing on the side, the rambow 
K:oIors with the symbols nf the sky in their hands, shows ihe 
love for beauty which prevailed among this mountain people, 
and at the same time shows the symbol of the cross. 

There is no mythology more beautiful than that of the 
Navajos, and it seems to have been original with them. Still 
we we to notice that the humanized rainbow resembles that 
which was common among the Egyptians and signified about 
the same thing, This resemblance leads us to the subject ol 
the transmission of symbols. This has been treated by Goblet 



I90 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

de Alviella, who is regarded as the best authority upon the 
subject. He, however, confined his studies mainly to the sym- 
bols found in Eastern lands, and only refers briefly to those 
scattered over this continent. He maintains that an esoteric 
system prevailed throughout the world, but was better under- 
stood by the priests and magicians than by the common peo- 
ple, but that there was so much secrecy about it, that it was 
difficult to decide whether it was borrowed from others, or in- 
vented independently. 

It is acknowledged by all that there are many symbols in 
America which so strongly resemble those found in Europe 
and in Asia, as to suggest that they came from some common 
center and were gradually transmitted from one continent to 
another. Among these symbols, the most common and wide- 
spread are those which are connected with the worship of the 
elements, and especially with the worship of fire. As proof of 
this, we have only to refer to the fact that the cup stones, 
as well as the suastika, arc very common in this country 
and in Asia, and the explanation which has been given, that 
they were used for generating fire, is the most plausible one. 

It is to be noticed that the custom of making a new fire was 
common among the natives of America. Prescott has described 
that which occurred among the Mexicans. He says: 

*'Among the Aztecs it was at the end of fifty years that the 
new fire was created, instead of every year as among the Mus- 
kogees. The ceremony took place upon the summit of a 
mountain, about two leagues distant from the city. A proces- 
sion of priests moved toward this mountain, taking with them 
a captive taken in war and the apparatus for kindhng the new 
fire. On reaching the summit of a mountain, the procession 
paused till midnight; then as the constellation of the Pleiades 
reached the zenith, and while the people waited in great bUS- 
pense, the new fire was kindled by the friction of the fire drill 
placed on the breast of the victim. The flame was then com- 
municated to the funeral pile on which the body of the captive 
was thrown. As the light streamed up to heaven shouts burst 
from the countless multitudes which covered the hills, terraces, 
temples, and housetops. Couriers with torches lighted bore 
them over every part of the country, and the cheering element 
was soon brightened on many a hearthstone within the circuit 
ot many a league." 

Mr. Thomas Wilson has given a map showing the distribu- 
tion of the suastika throughout Asia, America, and Europe. 
This map is very suggestive, for it shows that the symbol 
might have been introduced into America from either side — 
from Asia or from Europe. If from Asia, it seems probable 
that it was in prehistoric times; if, on the other hand, it was 
introduced from Europe, it might have been in historic times. 

There is one point to be considered in connection with this 
theory of the transmission of such symbols as the hooked crosr 



w 



THE SUASTJKA AND TIRE WORSHIP IN AMKRICA. 19I 



'iOr suastika aDtJ the winged figure. If they were transmitted 
from Europe they did not carry with them those symbols which 
^#er€ quite common in medieval times, and so must have been 
transmitted before that date. There were fire symt^ols in 
Europe before medieval times, but the basilisk and the cocka- 
Crice, and other symbols, became common at a later lime. 

The dragon, or winged serpent, has performed a part in 
many creeds, and the dragon slayer has been the hero of count- 
Icss legends. These legends vary with climate and country 
and the developnient of the people with whom it is found. In 
Egypt the dragon was called Typhon; in Greece, Pytho; in 
J ndia, Kalli Naga, the "\ ani-shment of Vishnu"; in Anglo-Saxon 
crhronicles he is called Draco, '" the fire drake," "the denyer of 




HAP SHOWING 



SWASTIKA. 



God," "the unsleeping, poisoned fanged monster," ■* the terri- 
ble enemy of man, full of subtility and power." 

The story of St. George and the dragon is a common one, 
which has come down to us through the ages, but it is a sur- 
vival of hundreds of earlier ones. An old legend of the 
founding of Thebes by Cadmus, is as follows: "Arriving on the 
site of the future city, he proposed to make a sacrifice to the 
protecting goddess Athene, but on sending his men to a dis- 
tant fountain for water, they were allacked by a dragon. 
Cadmus therefore went himself, and slew the monster and, at 
the command of Athene, sowed its teeth on the ground, from 
which immediately sprang a host of armed giants. These on 
the instant all turned their arms against each other, with such 
fury that they were all presently slain, save five. Cadmus in- 
voked the aid of these giants in the building of the new city, 
and from these five the noblest families of Thebes hereafter 
traced their lineage." The meaning of this story and the 




p? lirfiinir u, iin'i iir m- It is 







C^pc of Good Hope, 
*^ VaitomaDus 

often de* 
IS :a_ec tiiif '^^ c^ serpeats* because of t 
:^ f-r :: ±ocs sec rreep I^c other seqients bu 
joes half -pr-j^t. fr:ci ir:rjci razzse aH other serpents avoi 
him, a:ii ;:'sc^=3 iz^z x«r:re i^sE^ned kim for preeminenc 
frox the ct:»-2 cr ::r2*t cc ais ke^. It is said to be half 
foot :z Ica^r the hiri-er ^^rz like a serpent, the fore part lik 
a ovr'ic. I'z'tic =.:-5ter5 ire SLipoosed to be foond in Afri 
anc: soisc :tr*r pins :: :h* world. Guildaames, a Norma 
pries:, wr.: iszzici co:k i- the Middle Ages, which is a fu 
description :f tnese monsters, and especially of the cockatric 
says their pjiscz is s-2 strong that there is no cure for it« an 
one is in such a decree an^cted by its presence that no crcatuc^< 
can live near it. It kills not only by its touch, but even tt^ « 
sight of the cockatrie is death, and all other serpents are afraw</ 
of the sight aad hissir.g of a cockatrice. The heraldic cocica* 
trice is represented as having the head and legs of a cock, a 
scaley body of a serpent, and the wings of a dragon, but a 
crowned head. The basilisk was the king of serpents. It is f<^ 
described as a huge lizard, but in later times it became a 
crested serpent. Like the cockatrice, the glance of its eye was 
death. Pliny says, ** We come now to the basilisk, which all 
other serpents flee fiom and are afraid of; albeit he killeth 
them with his very breath and the smell that passeth from 
him, and if he do set his eye on a man, it is enough to take 
away his life." 








lakiug arrangcmenis loi aauttaet cipedi 



1903) i 
ducted by the 
rcpreseoiing a 



RniLFRtciir 

mia oexi tall. 

R. H. ttALt^uuK hat been re-el ecie J president of the Anthrupological 

K. UeuKuu F KuNKS has been appointed as Commissioner of the 
m at ine bl. Louis Exposition. 

K. t'. Leuck made an address to Ibe Society ot Biblical Archaeology 
ur HrcscDt KnowledKe of the Karly Egyptian Uynasues." 
K. WiLLiAU C Mills, cusiodlao ot the A tchseo logical collectioa of 
will have charge ot an exhibit at the ht. Louis Exposition. 
K. Ehilk KiviKKK ha& been elected first president oi the Society 
:Sludy ot the fraliisloric Archaeology ot France, recently established 

torcssuKS fUMfBLLY AND Uavis havc visitcd Turkesisii. under the 
es of the Carnegie Insliluie. to study the ancient human occupation 
: nalJOD, but have not yet reported. 

MEb Haumonu Thumulll was the author uf a Nalick Dictionary, 
has recently b?en published by tbe bureau ot Ethnulcgy. He was 
Ij man wlio utideratuod tbe language ol Ihc Indians ot INcw England* 
t. Gborge Uvkon Gokuun has been elected instructor in Anlhro- 
in tlie University of I'ennsylvania, Ibis i» the chair which was 
shed lor Ut. D. G. Brinion. and was hlled by liim with great ability 

IB Journal of the I'olynciian Society (December 

de by E. Best, 'Notes on tlie An ot War as Cc 

'* and three articles by b. feicy bmith, wilh a plat 

rmed by making a framework ot poles interlaced. 

H. A F.CHAidiieKLAiN has an interesting article in the Am< 

1 ol Folklore, December, 1903, on " primitive woman as a poci 

ta reading, tor it snows thai tbe poetical ali^aius was enjoyed 11 

c tunes, et en, if the form ot poetry was lacking, somewhat. 

SCOVEHIES AT Pkkoauos.— Ur. UorpheldLas been engaged in 

; agara at Pergamos, Asia Minor,,and has laid bare the load th; 

up tbe biil, a great square 

gymnasium terrace, and a stone stairway and a pan ut the city louti- 

sculpture is represented by an Alexandrian head, and an altar which 

s to the time of Allalus, 

ECBNT DiSCOVKRiE^ AT Epursus.— The Austrians have beea at 

rxcavaling al Epbesus. A theatre was found with sixty-six rows of 

nade ol amesione covered with marble; below the theatre, to the 

well-paved toad, and at right angles to this, the colonnaded road 
le theatre to the harbor. It iii 500 meters long and was bordered Dy 
iian porticoes. A large open court was surrounded on ibiee sides 
DrintDian colonnade and a Mosaic pavement. Where the roads croas 
Other there are monumental niches hlled with statues. Un loUowing 
B of the road eastward, the great marble gate is reached. Leading 
t was a flight of steps, with colonnades ut six column*. A rouoa 
Lg with two rows ot columns, the lower Done, tbe upper belonging 
Hellenic period, was disclosed. The most interesting hnds were the 

of sculpture, both bronze and marble; but most imponani ot all. 
e bronze athlete, alio a hne female head and the upper half of an 




\ 

\ 



4.1. 



« B m m - ^ ' 



i=*i MarKiv. Pcrcv 



•»»w.»^-- k.-. : -'.i .•-: ■ ,- :i T w--:*i :: -.zt ."-r*. :.-^ rr«>e^.' on the 
i^«. »•..". ^ t - : s 4 •: : r : . ■ in : i' ::• >: ■ £>.•* 1-1.^5 »ere Hiitites. 
K'. «.' . • •. . ••' : -■ -- : • . ;. -i:»r ::i.; :-• sine spmicn was 
Li k- :: i: 1- «. - . -.i.t: r- z^f. iizz'tz. 1 L fazi :herc ifc 
I.; V t t « . ■ - . -. : : ■-:.;:■::-■-: V : r = _ r z*:* : : - » is :ha: Ihe im- 
- ;■••■ i :-.. :: : ■:■-:■: t --■£::.■ t- -hi?**:, are H utiles. 

.-. .• •: 7: • :- irt .: ••- ;-»:!:£ -^ t trz. .5 a type of 

k . : - : : - ■ -. - -.-_.- - : i T - • ? . i r t - : -t ; : : a % rcat number of 

-■.4't i .-. . . -_ -T' -. ■..-:■ *:r ■ t- : : -rr : _- :.r* >::n:ed at the 

ri: t. - : . - :-r ■«- t". : : . i- - 7- • :i :-::t : ab.es made uf 

iri :-:•■:::-: i". :- -::.!■ - t ■ ; w t-» ci ■-■:".i tirk* The roadway 

::■•■: • ..'. : ..'. . -—IT »: . --a: :l :-i r.;*:*. inc :be bridge ii 

«:•:-■.•..• — - : •: : - : -. i.. -. ^ . z- . r.- : i ■ z ii ; > e: : :* safe for foot- 

?.i:5*--T- 

• • ■• . i •■••7: J ■ T 1 . stT ".:> »: ;h prevailed in 
Ir. : s *■ : - - .-- -. :■: :.: ■ :--.:-.*.■ *: . f. . ri.i* *:.* impoverish ihe 
Zftkti- 'z ■.':-: Si : ■ . .': ' - -* s. ? t ; 1 1 _-■. z THt: -ir.cs. tfaat tbev are 
-*p:. ■-:.■■-■ :" - . • - . ' z :k- ' •* _- itriake:. to provide 

rt'z.ti. ■- •■ . - rr:. . -^ * -. ? : i* : ' t r.^w r^: r-iac^ f^r to the Kast.. 

* '.trt ' z ■'-.-.' ■":;■: tt ■ - - ; - '■ '-* • -* ts ar : ■. ".ually preC-mpl 



• . ^-. 



. . <'..._ 



\ 





' = r. : -. ur t. :h u^h there is land 

; - * . -. .'"T-- -T - - ~ r -'— '" 'i.:? bro'jjch: out by recen 

D--.. .-: :-.?•-■■ T : ---:- • ::= ri> p:in ■wr.iTS It appears tha 
P.irr.--:- . ! = ■ ' ::' 7 :■.::'..■* ".It :: :r.*. •*:.■.«: a bo> : but he afre 
»ar::' •.•-:-..:■ r :■-■ t *-.;■■: .i? :.?: re :r.er on :he monument, an 
hhr: :. . ? : - :. - ^- . • ■: » - r- - : : ; -. *.■.= • i i : e Tr.o:h me* III. erected sever 
0-.- . -:-. :. :.;. •: ■■* .: i ' ■- zi .r. i :-c .r. Ht.:- poiis. Oi the five 
' ., r- ■ : -* 1 - ■-■ r : r-. iTr n: * :r. H-ro3e— one in Constant 
r. , . T r. ■'..-. r 1' .-■•-.? *:--: :.!< 5-::".::'.er< m campaigns i 

r\3'S,'s....* "■ .«.....-?. 

I:--- : •• - . : •..**. " / AT '•!: I t::.o.j> Pinches. L.L. I)., dir s- 
:'js-*:': •- ■■ ■ --•. r : -.-■ •. ::■= ^■ :-.'.% : I<:h!i>:ai Arch.vulogy. ai^^^d 

'h'jA*: : '.:.'.' * -.;.T V . : - ■ ■' ' r'.Tvr.-r. ir. : : Arn:-.-e;^:h were lunar perioc^^^s 
'**:i' rr tr.-. • : r- : :... ." . :.- ■•. . -:■ .::.: : f^.My lie taken as the ori*;- in 
if ir.v ^. •♦■-: -i' : s. : '.'.'-. " .' ■ •.:: . :*. .-.:; i::^ the .Suinero- Baby loniar^rr— is 
the J-^' re : : :'. • •■•.:•.• •. :■ j . .' .r. : ::.ry were in real it v days of ma^ 
ratK*?r '\..:i, ao'- i : r: ." - ■ ..v. .-.* * ■. red In the worship of one G 

was p':«- i 1-' : \; tr.'." ;■. :■:•.- a ■« 

}'H'i. .\. ':'. ^Ai :. : ^ -.■. a:: t or "The Oeciphermenl of iM. if 
}fittiT': Ifj* r:;i:'.i-.-. :..e -.• .^r;. :.:i I'roceeJines of the Society of 

I'ifi:ir.;i, A' r.' . ^■\ :...-::•.: A.:h a ii''**e. The stale of civihzati ^n 
r«ra'.li«'i •»•::' -re ••. - : - : { '. i;- actl ::..ii:e. is apparent from the fact lh» ^r 
'^iX--. ' '..'i-r: ■*.' w'.-' " -A ■• « X «:. ..-■>. K'-rs'-'-s. dojjs. and bows and arro -^i^'s 
HIT 'i»fi ' r.- : ;;, ■:. •:.■_■ r .-. F : :. ." i\' e ha> >tudicd the inscription af 
li'ir ;V I AH Ii : > :- v. := vl-: :■ ..'.••J-.-.-r. and he :nounted ; hem, reached 
ih !ns r.:i';or. .«ri1 •-.•..; .. ..; .' . r '•: it. He also examined the figure of 
\"',«»}i'-. Ar.ic'i . -^ '.:.■ f. '.-'I '■• i:. 'lie ' ..i«i*'!i writing". 

M; SiAM.i I \ ( ■ .- -.1 1 .i> IT: ariii'U' in the l*roceedings of the 
-,','.'■'. t,\ \U >i\i .\\ .\r- r... .1 .v I.»:ii:.irv. igo4i on ".Semitic Inscriptions, 
rhi- M .f!i''- .-^'oin- t'r- ^ 1 II I:i-'.r ptinns, the Min;ran Inscriptions rn i 

'vyiitli X'.iiii.t. ■ a'.-; -•..:'.' M tii.i: -' .in v'.\ a inoiilh passes that does not brinif / 

to lio'i'i- •"■I'm- ii''.\.'. '!.'■ 'A 'Tf-'i ^cinitit insrripii<in. l*ri>f. \V. Flinders ■ 

I'rtrir Tr«-.ti> of ihf " !.\:»..Mi Itr..'-i":i under Mcrcnptah." He says a risf I 

r)f tin: prif>.t-kirjL'-> ".^i^ .I'-ion' r? ,i H. ('. The Lybyan alliance against [ 

Kani'-si's 1 1 1, w,^^ a idit thi"^ luiii . I'ruf. Mdvvard Naville continues the i 

traiisl.iiMtii lit thf lioftl: of the I-^cul with great interest. The doctrine of 
the fiiiiin* slat-- of iinin trtality IS ck-ariy expressed throughout this book, 
far more so than in the Ilrhrcw .Scriptures. 



ARCHiCOLOGICAL NOTES. 195 

A Map op thb Mound op Kadesh. — Since th« publication of the 
"Bittle of Kadesh/* Prof. Br<?asted of the University ot Chicago has dis- 
covered in a most unexpected and out-of-the-way comer in Berlin, a map 
ot the modern mound of Kadesh, something for which he looked in vain all 
bat year. I'his is a strong confirmation of the results in the Kadesh essay. 

Prehistoric Rock Carvings.— In 1889 Pcrricr du Carne discovered, 
in a cave at Teyjat in Dordogne, France, flints and carvings on bone. A 
careful examination of the walls at the point where this discovery was 
made, revealed a series of nine .inimals very finely carved. Among them 
are a bull and a cow, a horse of the quaternarv period, a bison, and two ante- 
lopes or goats. This makes the ninth grotto known to contain such draw- 
ings. 

Italian Discoveries at Phaestos. Crete. — Recent discoveries 
have been made as follow: Christian tombs later than the fourteenth cen- 
tury; foundation stones and pavement of an ancient sacred precinct, earlier 
than the Hellenic period, but still in use at that time, and containing many 
votive ofiFerings; at a still lower level, two Mycensean buildings, one above 
the other. The later one was a palace, but built also for defence. The 
earlier one consisted of two large, fine apartments, storerooms, and rooms 
for slaves. The arrangement is described in detail. The most notable 
discoveries occurred on the eastern and northern slopes of the hill. Here 
were found remains of houses, streets, and tombs. The houses and tombs 
were evidently those of people who worked for the master of the palace. 

DiscovKRiKS in Italy in iqo2. — Many facts for the study of pre- 
Roman Italy are constanly appearing. Cave-tombs in Sicilv show an un- 
bfoken continuity of the second and third periods, and Orsi thinks he finds 
traces of Siculan occupation of the mainland, as Thucydides says. Many 
eairly graves have been found in Roman and Alban territory. At Grotta- 
ferrata. beside a neolithic grave, there are many burnt graves in which the 
ossnarv and gifts are placed in large jars. The ossuaries are either vase- 
shaped with roof-like cover, or hut-shaped. One of the latter has a window 
and contains a rough clay figure, which undoubtedly represents the dead 
aiiMl explains the meaning of the miniature articles that appear among the 
famishiDgs. 

Excavations in the Fokum at Rome. — The subterranean galleries 
beneath the area of the Forum have been further excavated. So far six 
▼malted chambers have been found, each containing, in the center of the 
fleor, a block of travertine with a round hole in it for the capstan by which 
the elevators were worked in the shafts. In one gallery a fragment of lapis 
*mf<^^ was found. This would indicate an earlier date for the pavement 
than has been assumed, as other objects found seem no later than the end 
ot the first century B. C. At the end of the peri-style of the Atrium Vestae 
«re traces of a building, which preceded the earlier atrium. At the south- 
west of the temple of Augustus remains have been found which may be 
those of Horrea Germaniciana. 

A Roman Fort. — Mr. Mungo Buchanan, of Falkirk, is preparing a 
^^''di with plans, of the excavations which are being conducted by the 
Scottish Society of Antiquaries at Roughcastle, Scotland, one of the Roman 
rorts on the line of the Wall of Antoninus, near Falkirk. The ramparts 
have been constructed in the same fashion as the wall; a layer of stones 
■^** used as a foundation, and then layers of turf till the desired height 
J** reached. There are evidences that the fort was built at a later date 
loan the wall; there was, at Castleway, a gateway on the north side, as well 
^. one the east, south, and west. A series of pits, which apparently con- 
tamea sharpened stakes, guarded the northern gate. 

A Bronze Chariot from Nurica. — There has recently been placed 
00 exhibition in the Metropolitan Museum. New York, a fine bronze biga, 
^wuicn was found near Nurica. On the front are a standing warrior and a 
woman, who seems to be handing the man a helmet and oval shield, bear- 
ing a Gorgon's and a lion's head. Beneath the shield is a spotted tawn on its 




196 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

back. One side of the panel shows two warriors^fightinff over a fallen 
One of them carries an oval shield like that on the front and with the 
decoration. The other panel shows a man in a ctiariot drawn by win 
horses galloping over a prostrate figure with long hair and a garment rea 
ing to the feet. Beneath the front of the chariot projects a boar*s hear" 
a socket for the pole, which ended in an eagle's beak. Of the bronze 
tions but little is missing, even the wheels being well preserved, 
wooden portions have been restored. Fragments of ivory indicate a lini 
of this substance. The small size and delicate construction seem to in 
catt that it was an ex-voto^ or only made for burial in the tomb. 

Ancihnt Road and Stoxr Seats in New Zeai^and. — The Jouri 
of the Polynesian Society for December, 1903. contains a description of 
ancient road called the "Great Road of Toi." It follows, generally, t 
foot of the hills, cutting across the mouths of the valleys, leaving the lei 
flat to the seaward. It is about 22 or 23 miles in length, and is paved wi 
flat volcanic or coral stones. Its width is about 15 or 20 feet. In sevei 
places, at the sites of old villages, are to be seen stone seats, where 1< 
gossips used to sit and learn the news of the passers by. The princii 
temple or marae, where the ruling chief often dwelt and where the sacrifi^ 
to the gods were made and the annual Feast of the Presentation of tl 
First Fruits was held, was located at Araltetunga. This was probably s- 
one time enclosed with a wall. At Arerangi, where the high chief usualC 
lived, is a platform, about two feet above the level of the road, the face 
which is lined with stone seats having backs to them When the min< 
chiefs used to visit the high chief (Ariki) they occupied those seats, and th< 
lodged in a seven roomed bouse on the opposite side of the road, which watf 
called a house of amusement. At Araitetinga there was a seat on whicl 
the chief pontifT sat when offerings were made. On his right, was seated 
priest, ana further away, was a seat which was called puera, meaning t» 
open or disclose, because it was through this priest that the decision wa 
announced. Another seat was called Marin/s^i-tcto, or blood-spilling, be 

cause on this stone was laid the heads of the human victims which wer^ 

brought here to be sacrificed to the gods. These seats remind us of thos^ -^ 
which were common in Peru and Mexico, though it is not known that ther^^ ^ 
is any connection between them. 

The following is a partial list of the more interesting specimens in th^^^ 
library of the State Historical Society of Iowa; Baby moccasins, beauti ^ — -^ 
fully beaded; four colors on fine, soft buckskin. Gala (mug) from Puablc^ 
region; red. with rows of black spots; handle like a pitcher; capacity, on^ 
pint. Gray earthen vase; neck 3 inches, base 5 inches; been much used r 
from Carroll Parish, La. Several Indian axes; found near Iowa City; 3to^ 
inches long, 2 to 4 inches broad. Stone hand hammer, with thumb hollow ; 
round, 3'^ inches in diameter; well formed. Granite anchor, 8 inches long, 
finches in diameter; grooved near the middle for the rope or thong. John 
Brown's cannon; sent to him in Kansas by Free State men in Boston; 
brought back by Brown to Oxford, Iowa; bronze, with cultivator wheels. 
Confederate Mortar, from Island No. 10; wooden, bound with iron. Glass 
Case for exhibiting collections, 8 1^x2 >^xi?^ feet; dark wood, heavy glass; 
took first prize for workmanship at Crystal Palace Exhibition, Hvde Park, 
London, 1851. Fine collection of U. S. copper coins, from 17Q2 onward. 
Many copper coins from various ages and countries. Fine collection of 
Confederate paper monev; all denominations. Collection of Colonial paper 
currency. Many valuable pictures of early settlers in the West, especially 
Iowa. Many relics of the Civil War. swords, gunt, belts, canteens, flags, 
caps, etc.; colors of the ist, 2d, gth. nth. 18th. 21st. 25th, 26th and 30th Iowa 
regiments. Several Southern flags taken by Iowa men. 







BOOK REVIEWS. 

hsTORv OPTKR Mississippi Valley from Its Discovery to the 
End op FoREifjN Uomiiiation. The Narrative of the Founding of 
an Empire, Shorn o( Cuirenl Myth, and Enliveneii by ThrillinB Ad- 
ventures of Discoverers. Pioneers. Frontiers Men. Indian yifthtrrj. 
and Home Makers. By John R. Spe.->ts in collaboration with A. H. 
" Clark. WithfacsimilES, maps and portraits. New York: Published by 
'. Clark: 1903. 

^^ I is a splendidly illustrated book, and one that ought to interest the 
TSierican people at the present time. It contains a beautiful picture of 
Fort Niagara in 1813; a reproduction o( l)e l.isle's map of 1703; Moll's 
man of 1710: Joule's map ol i7[3, Labat's map of T711; Celeron's map of 
1749; map of Louis. 1796: a Urge number of pnrtraits, including those of 
John Jay, Louis XV.. Lbuis XIV . Hernando de Solo, Antonode Ulloa. Sir 
William Johnson, Major Georee Roijers, George III, William Henry Har- 
rison. Benjamin Franklin, Andrew Jackson, the Cherokee Chief Outacite 
Charles Cornwallis, General Anthony Wayne. General Anbtir SinclaJr.and 
a larse number of enfiravings representing various scenes. 

It >i a very beautiful book, is printed on good paper, and contains 4II'> 
paees. It is dedicated 10 Hon, Theodore Roosevelt. Its appearance is 
timely. It ii a book which ought to sell well at the present time, in con- 
nection with the St. Louis Exposition. 



lACTlOMIOF TKS ILLINOIS STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY FOR THE 
kVsak I903. Fourth Aunual Meeting of the Society, Springfield, Jan- 
uary 27 and iS, 11)03, Published by the authority of the Board of 
Trustees. Springfield: Phillips Uros., Slate Primers; 1903. 

The contents of this book are too valuable to be published on such 
coarse paper and in so cheap a form, especially as the great Male of 
Itlioois is supposed (o pay the eipen^r. The first article is the address nf 
the Hon. Adiai A. Stevenson before the Society on January 27. IQ03. The 
■econd article is by Mrs. Matthew T. Scott on "Old Fnrt Massac.'"' snd is 
illustrated by a full page half-tone plate. ;>tso a map from Victor Collot's 
Atlas of the Ohio River, and a plate representing the uniform of the 
United Stairs Army in 1783. and another representing the same in i8oi; 
also a plate representing the site ol old Fort Massac, Following Ihit are 
articles on the followinE subjects; '■ Men and Manners of the Earlv Tlavs 
in Illinois," by Dr. A. W. French, and illustrated by a cut of the old State 
House at Springfield; ''Sectional Events in the Historv of lllinoit," bv 
C. B. Crc'n, Ph, D.: " Decisive Events in the Building of Illinois," bv the 
Hon. William H, Collins, of Q.iincv. Ill,; - Edward Coles, Second Gov- 
ernor of Illinois," by Mrs. S, P. White; "Fort de Charters. Its Oriein. 
Growth and neclin>-." bv [oseph Wallace; "A Few Notes for an Industrial 
History nf Illinois." bv Ethelberl Stewart, Department of La' or. Chicago; 
and the Necrologist's Report, each one itiuslraled. 

The character of these articles is certainlv worthy o! better printing. 
They do credit to the writers, and show the importance of the historical 
evenli which have occurred in ihis slate, and the high character of its citi- 
zens. They show much literarv culture and do honor (o the slate. In the 
Addendum, we iind nearly :oo pages devoted 10 early records, ai follows: 
"TitKch Records, with Transactions, " by Rev. C, J, Eschroann; "Traveli 



« 



I 







198 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

in Illinois in i8iq," bv Ferdinand Ernst; "The Army Led by Col. Gc 
Rogers Clark in 1778." by J. F. Snyder; "An Early Illinois Newspaper/ 
J. H. Burnham; " Forgotten Statesmen of Illinois.** by Hon. John Mc 
and Dr. J. F. Snvder; "The Attorney General of Illinois," by Mason 
Newell; ••Local Incidents in the Career of Abraham Lincoln from 183 
1158," by Howard F. I)v?on. with an atrocious woodcut, the face is jfood 
the drapery very coarse; " Eaily History of the Drug Trade." with a 
portrait of Philo Carpenter, the first druggist, by Albert C. Eb^rt; * 
Sketch of John Gabriel Cerre of Kaskaskia.*' with a portrait, by Walter 
Douglas; "A Report of the Committee on Historic Places." with pla 
representing^ the Lovejoy Monument, the Republican Wigwam of 18 
English Colony House at Albion, Ilhnols. " The Action of the D. A. R. 
Relation to the Purchase of the Site of Old Fort Massac " constitutes t 
last article. This, with the preceding article, show that the historic spi 
is thoroughly awake in Illinois. 

* * * 

Globits. Illustnetre Zeitschrift fur lander end Volkerkundc. Hero 
eeghen von H. Singer unter besonderer Mitwirstung von Prof. 
Richard Andree. Verlog von Fritdr. Viewig and Sons. 

This is the only weekly journal devoted to archit-ology in existence, 
treats of the different nations of the earth as they are seen by the mode 
traveller, and keeps a record of all architological discoveries. It is wt 
illustrated. The archd-ologists of this country will do well to subscri 
for it. 

4c 4c « 

The KiciHTKRNTu Report of the Bureau of Ethnology 
occupied with a lone article by Charles C. Royce on "Indian Land 
sions in the United States The first part is devoted to the Esquimos abou 
Behring Straits, written by Edward William Nf-lson. and splendidly illus 
trated. The report for 1S07 and i8q8 contains a treatise on the " Myths ot 
the Cherokees," by Mr. James Mooney. Part II. is devoted to the "Locali- 
zation of Tusayan Clans." hv Cosmos-Mindeleff ; "Mounds in Norther 
Honduras." by 'I homas (lann; "The Mayan Calendar Svstems,** by Cyru 
Thomas: "Primitive Numbers," by \V. J. Mc(»ee, "The Tusayan Flute an 
Snake Ceremonies." by W. J. Fewkes. and "The Wild Rice Gatherers o 
the Upper Lakes," hv Albert Krnest lenks. The Twentieth Annual Re 
port for i8<j8 is devoted entirely to •' Aborigfinal Pottery of the Easte 
United States." by \V. H. Holmes. This is also splendidly illustrated. 

HOOKS RECEIVED. 

Flint Implements and Fossil Remains F'rom a Sulphur Spring at Afton,... 
Indian Territory. IW W. H. tlolmes. Head Curator. Department oP 
Anthropology. From the Report ot the National Museum, Washington.. 

Report of the Exhibit of the U. S. National Museum at the Pan-American 
Exposition at HufTalo. N. Y.. i«K3t. By Frederick W, Price, W. H. 
Holmes and George P. Merrill. Washington. D. C. 

Narrative of a Visit to Indian Tribes of the Purus River, Brazil. By 
Joseph Beal Steere, of Ann Arbor, Mich. Smithiontan Institution, 
Washington. I). C. 

Report of the U. S. National Museum, under the direction of the Smith* 
sonian Institution, for June 30, 1901. Washington, D. C.^ 




Vol. XXVI. July and August, 1904. No. 4 

THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF ART IN AMERICA. 

BY STEPHEN D, PEET, PH. D. 

We turn now to the ethnography of art, especially as ex- 
hibited on the American continent. This subject has been 
treated by various authors, but mainly from the study of the 
native art as it exists at the present time. Our purpose is to 
go back to prehistoric times and so far as possible, bring a 
picture o( the art as it was before the Discovery. 

I. We shall begin with the study of the sculptured art, 
as it is found in the different parts of the continent. We have 
seen that there was a great variety in the manner of repre- 
senting the human form; a variety which depended in part upon 
the locality, and in part upon the material which was used, bul 
mainly upon the character and culture of the people among 
whom the images were found. 

It will be profitable to go over the different parts of the 
continent and examine these various specimens, and see how 
they differed from one another and what characteristics they 
bear. It will be found that they owe more to the mythology 
of the different districts than they do to the art, yet if we 
compare Ihem with one another, we shall find there are great 
differences, notwithstanding the tact that they are all of them 
quite rud«. They are certainly instructive, for they carry us 
back to an early stage of art. the very stage in which mythol- 
ogy and art are always combined, 

I. We begin with the Northwest coast. Here the statues are 
so carved as to represent the human form with very consider- 
able perfection ; and yet they are so mingled with mythological 
creatures, and so covered with rude barbaric ornaments, that 
we arc hardly ready to regard them as works of art, or even to 
call them idols, but use a more general term to describe them, 
viz.; totem figures. These objects were looked upon with great 
reverence and sometimes even with affection, for they repre- 
scoted the ancestors of the tribes about whom so many tales 
fere told, and the very mythologies which prevailed increased 
that reverence. Some of these images represented the heads 
«f the houses and the founder* of the villages, and were 



BE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAW: " 

erected by the permission of the animal divinities which had 
been previously worshipped and were still regarded as the un- 
seen supernatural beings who controlled all their tribal affairs. 
There were no altars in front of these images, and no oEferings 
were bestowed upon ihem or sacrifices made to them. They 
were in reality 

»^^^^^^2^ more human thaa 

^^^^^^^^^^^L was 

^HHHV^^^^H upon them was 
^^^^^^^^^ partly 
^^^^^^^^^^ and partly imagi- 
native. ' 
It was owing to 
this mingling of 
scuLi-TURED ART OF THE NOKTHWHST COAST. Sentiment that 
these strange ob- 
jects were created. We can none of us enter into the feel- 
ings of the people among whom they were placed, nor can we 
fully understand the "motifs" of the artists who sculptured 
them. We know, however, that some of them were wrought 
out at great expense anil whole fortunes were bestowed upon 
them; yet the money that was laid out, neither brought glory 
upon the artists who executed them, nor to the people at 
whose expense they were erected. They show a barbaric lastc 
which resembled that of New Zealand and the islands of the 
sea, and it is supposed that Ilie patterns from which they were 
taken were the animals and birds of the region. 

J. There were also many animal and human images among 
the Pueblo tribes of the Interior, some of which are worthy of 
attention; but here also we find the influence of mythology 
was stronger than the influence of art. The Pueblo tribes wor- 
shipped animals and had a great many animal fetiches among 
them. These animals were supposed to preside over the dif- 
ferent portions of the sky. Some of them represented the 
divinities who presided over the chase. They were called 
" Game Gods " and " Prey Gods," but were supernatural beings 
and directed the hunter in his pursuit of game. The human 
images were of a higher order than the animal fetiches, and 
sometimes represented a higher order of art. for it was the 
SLtperstition of the people that the nearer they came to the 
natural object, the more successful they were with the divinities 
whom they worshipped. 

The human images are worthy of attention for three reasons: 
First, because they repreient humanized divinities which took 
the place of personal gods in the estimation of the people; 
second, because they are covered with symbols which represent 
natural objects, such as the mountains, clouds and lightnings; 
and third, because some of them are furnished with wings and pre- 
sent acombination of birds and human beings, and may properly 




ETHNOGRAPHY OF ART IN AMERICA. 

be called eagle men or " man eagles," as Mr. F. H. Gushing has 
suggested. 

It docs not seem that art had here reached a high degree 
of perfection, at least its scope was limited by mythology; 
yet we find that sculpture in stone had reached about the same 
stage as the carving in wood had on the Norlhwest coast. The 
mythology embodied in these images is, however, far more 
elaborate than is the art. for this is everywhere present and has 
an almost infinite amount of details and the greatest variety 
of representations. 

3. The human efRgies which are occasionally found among 
the Mound-Builders of the Mississippi Valley come before us 
next. These are sometimes found in the shape of effigies. 
which arc raised above the soil and are of gigantic size, vary- 
ing from twenty to forty feet in length. The size of the effigies 
show that the people regarded them with great esteem and 
spent many hours in their erection. These, however, were the 
product of the mythologies which prevailed, as much as Ihey 
were the products of the art, though much imitative skill was 
expended upon them. 

An explanation of these images has been given in my work on 
Emblematic Mounds. It will be seen from that book that they 
represent thcmythologyof the Dakotasand Winnebagots who 
were hunters as well as agricultural- 
ists, but who had migrated from the 
valley of the Ohio and retained thc 
same mythologic system which they 
held when they were dwelling in that 
valley. There are, to be sure, no 
human effigies in the mounds of 
Ohio, though there are a few bird 
mounds and animal mounds which 
represent the same divinities which 
tbey continued to worship after reach- 
ing their new home. The anti-natural 
godwascalled "Heyoka." This god 
was represented with one leg and 
with arms upturned and a peaked 
cap. A representation of this may 
be found in the effigies and rock in- ' 
scriptions in the caves of Minnesota 
and Dakota. These can hardly b'j 
called works of art. for whatever 
skill was exercised upon them was 
plainly controlled by a mytho- 
logic conception, rather than by 
the skill of the artist, and the 
imagination ruled the hand more tha 

4. There are pipes in New York and in the Provinces of 
Canada which bear the human image. These are also more 




I did the artistic sense- 




S- 1> I 



am BsngcAUAN. 

I H^HMiliuus than as works of 
» M Ihg atate of Ohio and in Ten- 
* ^^""B tace; some o( them wilh 
hw« kn rcsardcd as portraits, as 
SK voy aaiaral and life-like. In a 
"■B.fc"""** t»c«s are seen. In one 
" tune shows a grace which is 
* <rf the draperj' being owing 
po« the head of females. 
t ol these pipes may be 
EOS the Mound- Builders. 
! GaJf States there are many 
1 ^ ' w.— w i o f of thehaman form. Some 
«( thnshvwooBsidcrable artistic taste 
^tdatStf. Ok such idol »as found in 
■^ EbmiIi Mooad: another in a mound 
an%ee River. Mr. Clarence 
s toaod Baay pieces of pottery 
K the btunan shape. All of 
r that the art of the Southern 
t was more highly devel- 
ofKd thaa dsewbere. There were carved 
iw igei ia the so called "Dead-houses" 
which the Spanish soldiers, who were 
ac o o^ p aayiiig De Soto in his famous 
jo Mf ney. saw. These were in threatening 
attitwdcs aad were designed to be guardi- 
ans of the bodies which were preserved; 
they showed considerable skill in the art 
ol carvuf wood. 

6. In the West India Islands objects 
carved in stone have been frequently 
found — these are called " Zemes." They 
are mythologic creatures, which were sup- 
posed to represent the divinities of the 
islands. Some of them are represented 
as I) ing flat upon the face and bearing 
upon their back great mountains which 
slope to a peak, reminding us of the story 
of Atlas, who bore the mountain upon his back, and suggest the 
idea that parts of America may have been discovered in pre- 
Columbian times 

7. There are in Mexico Tiany specimens which show the 
influence of mythology upon the prehistoric art. Among these 
may be mentioned the figure of TIaloc, the God of Water, 
ihown in the above cut. There are in the museum certain 
figures of a recumbent god. which is by lome regarded as the 
God of Water, and by others as the God of Wine. The most 
interesting ia the sculptured altar in the form of a bear, with 
glaring eyes and an open receptacle in fhc back. This was 




ETHNOGRAPHY OF ART IN AMERICA. 



20S 



recently discovered several feet below the surface of one of 
the streets in the City of Mexico. 

8. A beautiful specimen of art has been recently found at 
Copan. It was connected with the so-called Hieroglyphic 
Stairway, and represents a female in a recumbent attitude. In 
contrast to it are the horrid jaws of some monstrous animal, 
which projected from the same stairway above it. 

The best specimens of human imager are those which 
represent the kings and queens who ruled over the cities of 
Central America, especially those at Copan and Palenque.* 
There is this peculiarity about the images discovered here, viz., 
tnat there are altars in front of Ihein, suggesting the idea that 
the inis9'-'; rp^lU' represented deified kings, and that sacrifices 




SCULPrUREU KlCiUKE IN HIEKOGX.VI'MIC SIAIRWAV. 

were offered to them. This is the explanation which we have 
given in the work on Myths and Symbols, yet there are those 
who claim that they represent divinities, instead of kin^s, 
among whom may be mentioned Mr. Teobert Maler, who dis- 
covered many sculptured slabs in the Umasin la Valley, on 
which were groups of figures more eiaborat ly dressed even 
than are those at Palenque and Copan. These sculptured slabs 
may be regarded as real works of art, for the figures on them 
are highly wrought and the details are carefully carried out, 
even the most minute parts of the dress, including the feathers 
and ornaments. There are no specimens of art in America 
which exceed these in finish or in skill. 



ao6 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



9- Idols have been found on tbe island of Zapeteca — seven- J 
teen in number. There was in the series, one image situated! 
upon a solid rock cut from black basalt. It was about n! 
feet high and eighteen feet in diameter. The head of t 
human figure surmounts it, making a cross out of the column. 
Another figure is in the shape of a huge tiger, eight feet h 
seated on a pedestal. One statue is twelve feet high, the v 
carved head of a monster surmounts the head of a human fort 
Another figure represents a crouching human form, on who! 
back is a tiger grasping the head in its jaws. 

Other idols have b(en found at Pcnsacola. one of the group 
of islands in Lake Nicaruaga. One of these represents an 
animal clinging to the back of a human being. Mr, Squiers 
says of it: "I have never seen a statue which conveyed so 
forcibly the idea of power and strength." Still another repre- 
sents a hideous monster with tongue hanging out, lai^e ears, 
and distended mouth, " like some grey monster just emerging i 
lit the bidding of an unholy priest.'' 

Other slAtucs have been described by Mr. Boyle, wbol 
divided them into two classes; the tirst of which includes idob| 
with iicrccand distorted features, often found near graves; th< 
second is composed of portrait statues, always distingu 
by "closed eyes and a calm, simple, human air about thc^ 
features." Mr. Squiers noticed a general resemblance betweeiL 
the Nicarxguan statues, and at the same time a marked indi-^ 
viduality.and deems il possible to identify many of them witM 
the gods of the Mexican Pantheon. One huge monolith has 
a cnntx on the breast; another wears on its head an ornamentcdl 
coronet, resembling a circlet, with a cross on the left ahouldetl 
and a richly cuvcil belt. The symbolism on these statues iM 
certainlv worthy of notice. 

10. There arc many other localities where human images are 
tn be seen, but the large majority of them are covered with signs 
which shows \h*i they were mythologic creations. Among 
thr«c we may nirntion the remarkable figure which was sculp- 
tured over the mliancc to the cemetery at Cuzco- Taken to- 
Kt^tUor we conclude th.tt ihey leach more concerning the myth- 
nl(»gv thnii thev do the native art. and yet their geographical 
,(lls|r1butt()n is veiv *iRnificBnt. The most interesting fact that 
Ihfse different obiecis teach in their geographical distribution 
In that the hunmn images and other works of art in the lands 
ii( lh« Kast are in the chrtinologicat sucression^two scrieft.i 
Cfirro'-tinndinc in their testimony as to tbe combination oiJ 
niylhnlii|{y with an during its early stages. 9 

? to notice that the character of art is always^ 
and the material of the locality, as 
Iranxportation of the material, and all 
of the material which was nearest at 




pffet led liy the (*o 
Ihpio w«" verv 'Utle I 
All|i^lt<s *ir\v made , 



htltld 

TitoN* thai aie consti 




ETHNOGRAPHY OF ART IN AMERICA, 307 

ate on the Northwest coast, those constructed out of lava pre- 
ponderate in the desert region of the interior, thos; constructed 
from clay and rude stone and shells preponderate in the 
Mississippi Valley, while the specimens of sculptured stone 
arc brought from the regions of the Southwest, Mr. Mason 
has spoken of the different colors which prevail, and holds that 
from these may be recognizedin the museums the specimens 
which have come from different districts, as the material which 
abounded in these districts differed so much that one color 
would preponderate in one districi, and another in another, so 
that the geographical district could be recognized even with- 
out the labels. 

Mr. Holmes has also made a map of the ethnographical 
districts which are represented in the museums, and has spoken 







*• the character of the tribes which come from each district. 
ij) The district about Baffin's Bay he calls the Eastern and 
fiddle Esquimaux; (2) the region on Behrinc Straits, the 
Western Esquimaux; (3) the region on the McKenzie River, 
*he Tinneh; (4) that on the Northwest coast, the Thlinkit; 
VS) that on Columbia River, the Chinook: (6) the California 
*rta, the Klamath; (7) the great basin of Salt Lake, the Ban- 
nock and the Ute; (8) that on the Colorado River, the Pueblo 



J 



2o8 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

and Apache; (9) that on the Great Plains, the Blackfoot and 
Kiowa; (10) that on the Great Lakes, the Chippewa and 
Iroquois; (11) the South Atlantic district and Gulf coast, the 
Seminole and Choctaw; (12) the Arkansas and Texas area, 
the Wichita and Caddo; (13) Northeast Mexico, the Coahuil- 
tec; (14) on the Sonora, the Mohave; (15) in Central Mexico, 
the Aztec and the Otomi; (16) South Mexico, the Tapohec- 
nixtcc; (17) Costa Rica and the Isthmus, the Mosquito Chibcha; 
(18) West India, the Carib. Thus different districts of art 
have been recognized and ascribed to different tribes. The 
characteristic of each have been so plainly marked by the 
people who dwelt in them, that they can be recognized and 
even their limits fairly well defined. 

This map was based upon the location of the Indian tribes 
since the opening of history, and is really an ethnographic 
map, rather than an archaeological map, and yet it fairly well 
represents the archaeological character of the districts. It 
deals exclusively with the native ethnology, without regard to 
the European culture which has been superimposed. Let us 
examine the two northernmost districts and notice the contrast: 
In the first the people go to sea in boats made of skin; in the 
second, they made the boats of tree trunks which are beautifully 
carved and painted. In the first the people live in houses made 
of snow and whalebone; in the second, they are made of hem- 
lock and are bound with bands upon which wonderful totem 
poles are sculptured. In the fi»-st the people wear skins; in the 
second, woven garments made of wool, and sometimes cotton. 
In one the utensils are made of shell; in the other, they are 
made of wood and are carved into various shapes. The peo- 
ple have transft rred their skill in carving out of stone and are 
respectable sculptors, though their art is confined to smallei 
articles, and their carving is expended on the great totem poles. 

III. The j:jraphic arts — picture-writing, symbolic figures 
and hieroglyphs— are all represented on this continent, but 
with \ aryinj^ degrees of excellence. It may be said that the 
Msquimeaux were skillful in etching, for there arc many speci- 
mens of walrus bones on which arc sketched pictures ol 
houses, tents, animals, human beings, and mythologic monsters, 
the shamans having a prominent position. In these we may 
read the mytholoi^^y of the people. There are also among the 
wild hunter tribes many specimens of sketching which show 
very considerable skill. These specimens arc not confined to 
anv one vlistriot. but are scattered over the entire continent. 

I . rhere was considerable skill exercised in pecking human 
tij:ures and animals anJ foot prints upon the rocks. Very 
curious specimens are found throughout the Mississippi Valley, 
but their obiect remains a myster>- and the people who made 
them aie still unknown. The rocks of Arizona and Colorado 
aic also coveied wtth picro^raphs and svmbols which are sue- 
jjestive oi the habits of the people. We learn from them 




%r%^ d-^k 




J. k 



ETHNOGRAPHY OF ART IN AMERICA 2n> 

hat there were at une time hunters who used the lasso, and 
hat there were animals resembling the Idnia, There are also 
ock inscriptions on the cliffs ot Arizona which shuw that the 
Uiff-Dwellers were skilled in this department, and that they 
(crc acquainted with all the different symbols which all the 
jore civilized people are in the habit of using. 

The best specimens ot the graphic art. however, are to be 
3Und among the Pueblo and Navajo tribes and among th^ 




laya tribes of the Southwest, Among the first we find an ex- 
Ensivc system of symbolism, and among the last, hie toglyphics, 
y means of which they conveyed thought, especially of a 
fitgious nature. 

There was no writing, engravin'j or printing, such as 
bounded in historic couniries, and yet there was a great skill 
I drawing figures which should carry thought; so that sym- 



bolic writing may be truthfully ascribed to the people, and 
become suggestive of religious thoughl^the dances always 
coming at certain periods indicated by the position of the stars. 
Now, we have only to go from this region to that in which the 
calendar stone and the codices arc found to realize the progress 
which occurred. It matters not whether the hieroglyphics 
*ere introduced or grew, the lesson is the same. It was by 
the " scenic art " and by symbolism that thought took its on- 
ward course. This continent contain a remarkable record, but 
one which has not yet been understood, and the lesson i<! 
before us as wc look at the symbols. 

The codices arc very curious specimens, and show a stage 
of art which is worthy of admiration. These form a connecting 
link between the pictographs of the wild tribes of America 
and the hieroglyphics of Egypt, but they show a stage of the 
graphic art which is not found elsewhere. 

IV. This is but a brief review o( the distribution of art 
through the two continents of America, and yet it is enough to 
illustrate an important point. 

The question of the introduction of hieroglyphics is a subject 
which is much more difficult to ireat than is the geographical 
distribution. All that we can do is to separate the prehistoric 
from the historic, and then draw a comparison between the ob- 
jects found on this continent and those in the countries of the far 
East. There may. indeed, have been works of art in the early 
ages, which were wrought out by people whose history is un- 
known, but it has been thus fat impossible to identify the 
'horizons, and so we have to take the works as they were pre- 
sented at the time of the Discovery, without giving any parti- 
cular date to them. There arc. to be sure, those who think 
they recognize chronological horizons which commence with 
the Paleolithic Age, and pass on through the Neolithic Age to 
the Bronze Age, the same as are found in Europe; but the 
majority are content with identifying all as belonging to one 
" age." and yet with varying degrees of excellence according 
to locality. Such is the attitude of most of the archsologists. 
who have examined these specimens. Mr. W. H. Holmessays; 

We art told by the tarly Greek historians' thai a broad contineol 
known as Atlantis was once sprt-ad out over what is now known as ibe 
Atlantic Ocean, and was inhabited by a vigorous prople. It has been a 
lavorite theory with students, that many races may have been derived from 
this source, inheriting a sirange new culture, now represented by so many 
ruined cities. Whatever may be the truth with respect to the disanpear- 
' ■" '5 a curious fact thai another has arisen from the 



watervbed. 

We are able to show by geology that a large part of terra Rrma known 
as Yucatan, the massive bed of limestone of which the penin-isula is 
formed, contains the marine forms of life now flourishing along the shores. 
Though soil has gradually formed or, the rocky plains and dense forests 
have overspread all, there is always present the waterless and forbidding 
-desert. Into this slrao^e new land, some thousands or more years ago. 
-pioneers of the red race gradually found their way and buill ihemselvei 
nabitationi. They prospered and multiplied, being largely free from in- 



ETHNOGRAPHY OF ART IN AMERICA. 



trusions from without: went or 

developing the stone shaping art 

WM encircled with temples or pa 

Mystic wise men—culture hi 

' 'n religion. The condii 



(tom century to century building and 
i, until every gresl well or group of welts 
laces, grand in proportions, 
toea— appeared to instruct the people in 

■-■ under which the middle and southern 



branches of the family developed were different in many respects from Ihe 
north, and as a result there were marked distinctions in the people and 
iheir culture, but when the disaster which signihed the close of the Maya 
power came, all were alike involved. 

Comparative peace prevailed for a long period and the various com- 
munities seemed welded together in a strong and rapid union, but the 
many centuries of culture and power seemed lo have led to jealousies and 
<ruds, a few decades before Ihe coming of Columbus, 

In the culture scale this people stood at the head of the American 
tribes. They were sliil, properly speaking, barbarians, but still seemed 
on the threshold of civilization. Their status may be compared lo Ihe 
Greeks and Egyptians immediately preceding the dawn of history, and 
we may assume that they were, as measured by Aryan rales of progress, 
perhaps not more than a few thousand years behind the foremost natmns 
of the world in the great procession of races from savagery toward enlighl- 

ll is certain thai they were already employing a rude system of historic 
records, and were the only nation on the Western conlinent Ihal had made 
toy considerable headway; in ihe development of a phonetic system of 
writing. Their hieroglyphics occupy a place nol yet well defined some- 
where along The course of progress from pictograph lo tetter, and are con- 
sequently difficult of interpretation. There is no doubt, however, ihat an 
age of literature was actually dawning, though slowly dawning, in America 
when the shock of conquest came. 

V. We turn now to the personal decorations. There are 
ornamental features even in the mocassins which are worn by 
the Arapahoes at the present time, and every tribe has its 
own style of decorating the person and dress. The historians 
of the DeSoto expedition describe the dress of the tribes 
which were then situated in the Gulf States; Catlin described 
the ornaments and the dress of the Dakota tribes on the 
Missouri River; DeBry and the artist Wyeth describe the cos- 
tumes and habits of the Powhattan tribes and the natives of 
Florida; McKinney described the appearance of the Northern 
tribes. Many travellers since their day have described the 
appearance of the wild tribes of the Northwest coast, and the 
Spanish historians have furnished a picture of the Pueblo 
tribes. From these and from other sources we learn that there 
was I very considerable similarity in the costumes of the wild 
tribes, though the material which was used varied according to 
the locality. The northern tribes dressed mainly in furs; the 
southern tribes, in garments made of vegetable fibre; Ihe 
Pueblo tribes, in cotton, which was raised and manufactured in 
their own country, while the tribes of the Southwest were 
decorated in costumes which were wrought out of a great 
variety of fibre, and were covered with jewels and precious 
stones, the taste for jewelry and (or highly-colored garments 
being almost a passion among this people. 



' ai4 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



The impression formed after examining the various cos- 
tumes IS, thai there is a very striking resemblance to that which 
comes to us from t)ie far East, and we can realize why it was 
that Columbns, when he discovered the contment, gave the 
jiame of Indians to the inhabitants, for he really believed that 
they were East Indians, inasmuch as their costumes and their 




AX EAfll-E INTIIAX 

-weapons and tools, and even their pottery and their carved 
implements were very similar. 

The styles of the Indians, especially those who arc remote 

■from the abodes of the white men, remain essentially un- 
changed, and we learn from examining the specimens placed 
in the museums that there was a great love of color among the 

, people, and many of the more delicate shades were in use. 



ETHNOGRAPHY OF ART IN AMERICA. 



215 



IS among the so-called civilized races of the Central 
s the most magnificent display of costumes. The 
IS true of the people in Peru. This has been con- 
y the opening of the graves in the province of Ancon, 
ng the fabrics which covered the bodies of those 
who were buried. Whetherthe 
Indians understood the art of 
dyeing, tfie Knight of Elvas 
seems to have had no doubt 
about the matter. He says of 
the southern Indians: 

Give Ihcm whal color they lisl. 
so perltct, Ihal if it be red, it seem- 
eth a verv piece of cloth and grain, 
and the black is fine; ihey dye tbeir 



mttes . 



the 



e color 



Capt. Smith says: 

We have seen some maniles 
made of turkey feathers, so prettily 
wrought and woven with threads. 
that nothing could be discerned but 
the feathers, that was exceeding 
warm and very handsome.t 



1 



K^^^l 


Adair says: 




They twist ihe inner end of the 




feathers very fast into a. strong 


Pw' i» 


! double thread of hemp, or the inner 


hark of the mulberry tree, of the 


K''.-r S .• 7<\. 


si^e and strength of coarse twine, 


^ i"sj. 


is the tibres aresuflicienllv fine, and 


■.lieyhookit. in the manner ol nH- 


Vcrazzano found the peo- 


^^^Br 


|.l..- clad with the feathers of 


^^^^P ' 


Miivls of divers colors, and 


^0n|,;/ Vj ,, 


Koger Williams says the 




Indians of Massachusetts 


made coals or mantles of the 


Bi^"-v^>v 


leathers of their turkeys. The 


'^kins of rabbits, muskrats, the 


inner bark of the mulberry 




iree, were woven or quilted 


^^^^^^^BJ^S 


iniu cloaks; the hair of the 


^^^^^^^H^^^^B 


the beaver or oppossum was 


^^^^^^^^^^H 


spun, and the Indians of the 


SCULPTUKED SLAB. 


Illinois makes robes of threads 
of sinew. The Cliff-Dwellers 


ments into which w 


re woven the hair of rabbits 


er animals. The m 


aterial woven from grass was 


ke the fly-nets with 


which we protect horses. The 


lu Hi««kal S<xl<IT, P>rl 11., p 

^^H^^^H III 


«. ije. f'Vi.ii»t.,"p.a«uo. 



Ii6 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 




articles of dress were as follows: leggings, moccasins, a sort 
of shirt or jacket without arms, and a robe, lometimes made of 
the skin of a bear or moose, or other targe animal. Besides 
stockings and shoes of deer skin, there was a sort of cloth made 
of leaves of corn fettered together, which the Mohawks wore. 
A tunic was worn by the Hurons, Iroquois, and other tribes, 
which hung down to the 
knees; the rest of the body, 
including the arms and head, 
was naked. Thcwomenwore 
no skirt but a -little short 
waistcoat, usually made of 
cloth and decorated with 
beads. They covered them- 
selves with mantles, put on 
about them from the waist 
downward, with one arm out 
like the Egyptians. The 
men wore a mantle from one 
shoulder, after the same 
manner. Sashes belts and. 
garters were worn by nearly 
all the tribes; some of them woven of finest patterns. Of 
shell beads and shell work there are many specimens in the 
museums. 

The habit of tatooing the person and the art of making 
pictures on the living flesh prevailed. In Virginia, the whole 
body was commonly covered with these marks, but farther 
north, with a few figures of birds, serpents, or other animals, 
without order or symmetry. The best specimens of decora- 
tive art are found among the Pueblo tribes, and especially 
among the Navajos. 

The Pueblo tribes, as well as the Cliff-Dwcllers, exercij^ed 
a great deal of skill and taste in house decoration and clad 
themselves in a becoming manner. They had a peculiar w^y 
of arranging their hair so as to make large projecting rolls on 
either side of the head. The women always left one arcii 
outside of the mantle. 

The textile arts might admit of the geographical division, 
for basketry, woven garments, the products of the loom, sew- 
ing and netting appliances are mainly found where fibre suit- 
able for weaving abounds. The sculptured art abounds where 
the material is most suitable. The carving in wood prevails, 
as we have said, on the Northwest coast; tht carving in stone 
in the region of the Mississippi Valley, but it reached it<t high- 
est development in the Southwest region, in which the stone is 
easily wrought into shapes, though the coarseness of material 
did not admit of the finer tines, which a true artist always 
delights in. The plastic art was lacking altogether from the 
Northern regions, but prevailed in all other parts of the conti- 



r 



ETHNOGRAPHY OF ART IN AMERICA. 



117 



fient. It reached its highest perfection in Peru, for here th; 
most beautiful vases are found, which excell even in beautifi^l 
grace those found in Central America, though in this region 
(here is much taste manifested. 

The pottery which was common among the native 
tribes is worthy of special attention. We have already spoken 
of that which prevailed among the Canadian tribes. Mr. 




WOVEN BELTS. 

Clarence Moore, General Thruston, Mr, W. H. Holmes, and 
many others have described the pottery found in the Stone 
Graves and Gulf States. The pottery found among the Cliff- 
Dwcllers and Pueblos has been described by Mr. Walter 
Fewkes and others. Here the pottery is of different kinds; 
the white and black is supposed to be the oldest, though many 
specimens have been taken from the graves which present dif- 




ferent colors. The patterns on the pottery vessels were mainly 
derived from mythology, and represent mountains and clouds 
and various objects of nature. 

It was in the department of pottery that the art of the 
natives had its freest scope. Specimens of pottery are found 
in all the museums, and represent the taste for art ks very 
common among all the tribes of the two continents, though is 



Ill THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Itie (xr North tbe taste expcndf itself upon wood aad other 
atalerials. but eUcwhere it exhibits itself in the moulding of 
cb)' W; have not ipacc enough to descrilje these specimens, 
or even to mention the paitctns fuund 
upon tbctn; all that we can say, is 
that pottery has the greatest variety 
ut [itnatneniation. The most beauti- 
ful specimens are those which are 
moulded into animal and human 
forms. The most beautiful specimens 
of the Cliff r>»flIrTS are those which 
present symbols which are derived 
irom the shape of the mountains- 
and other natural objects of the 
region. The most beautiful id Peru are 
mcnAN poTTBBv. ihosewhichrepreseDilhehumanface. 
The ethnography of an is more finely illustrated by the 
specimens of pottery which have been gathered from the 
various parts of the two continents, than by any other means. 
One rea-ion for this is that potier>' is easily worked, is very 
abundant and takes upon itself all kinds of ornamenis: it can 
be painted and moulded, twisted and decorated in almost 
ever)' way; it yields itself to affection and can be made to 




represent the features of the departed, in the form of masks 
It also serves the religious nature, and admits of all the sym- 
bolic forms which religion requires; what is more, it lifts 
religion itself into greater heights, so that even mountains, 
trees, waterfalls, and streams, as well as craggs and caves may 
be represented. The inner life is sometimes depicted, the 
vessel itself is supposed to contain a soul, and the line: 



z lines "pniL 



ETHNOGRAPHY OF ART IN AMERICA. J19 

(he surface of the vessel arc left open, so that the soul may 
depart and not be confined. 

One great advantage coming from the study of prehistoric 
pottery is that we learn not only about the animals which 
existed and the peculiar style of repre- 
senting them, but we learn also about the 
appearance of the human beings and the 
form of their dress. Especially of the 
official costumes in whicn they were clad. 
The study of the cuts will illustrate this 
poinf. for in one we see the pattern of the 
cloth which was used and which was im- 
pressed upon a piece of pottery: in another 
we scf the animals which were common 
among ihe Puebto'. and the special manner 
of representing them with a line leading from 
heart. Ths ornaments about Ihe am 




iuth 10 the 




FROM PERU. 



articles, have been found i 
Stone Graves of Tei 



tion of mythologic figures and 
conventional patterns. In two 
other cuts representing the 
pottery vessels from Peru, we 
sec the peculiar 'costumes in 
which the priests and queens 
were dressed; the very pat- 
terns of the cloth being shown 

'by the rings and stripes upon 
the pottery. Pottery was com- 
mon also in Peru which repre- 
sents the form of '.he houses 
and the peculiar style in which 
they were built. 

VI. Personal ornaments 
were common among the pre- 
historic races of Americ 1. 
Jewelry was worn by the 
women in Egypt, and jewels 
were often worn for their talis- 
manic and magical signific- 
ance. The Florida Indians at 
the time of the Discovery 
weighted their ears with pend- 
ants, so that they hung down 
over their shoulders. The gor- 
gets of engraved shells; bosses 
of metal; spool ornaments, so- 
called, from which hung the 
plumage of birds, and other 

the mounds of Ohio and the 
nbers. Necklacei 



bear claws and the mandibles of birds, and the anklets of deer 




iJ 





AMEKJCAX AimgcuuUAir. 



i?' tbc aes » Ifacir dances, as 

FWscker. Hi ■■■■■I i wcic conddered 

thc«atircsof the South 

aad ievelry were 

belts and woven 

bgr W(h «eKga- Tbe dtstinctioo be- 

n fty the two sexes was much less 

One coald scarcely tell from 

SI was Bscd by a man or a women, 

_ _ _ **t^ conspicuous 

hf iIk bcA; evea deer boms and waving 

" lo aulce ihem more con- 

T^cre «as a castow a^RMC tbc Cboctaws of ptaotiag over 
tbe pares, poles Enta foor to iwdre feet higb, and fastening 
pape vtac boops to tbcs: 
tbc lowest boop ^Kwt (wo 
feet bocB tbe y o wo d. tbe 
otbers at different bciebts, 
with sti eatr s ot white 
cloth fasteBcd to the 
boops. Ther were siniple 
oniaincnts, tboogfa Co). 
Clayton calls ifacm a spirit 
ladder. Tbe six men ap- 
pointed arc called pole 
planterv. and arc ap- 
pointed from each clan. 

The deposits which 
were made in the grave 
itself were generally from 
the hands of womes. and 
consisted ol the more deli- 
cate tokens of affection. 
rather than those de- 
signed for display. The 
author has discovered in 
graves long strings of 
beads made of shell, 
SfUDg about the neck of 
"~|^Child, the child's bead 
Ming upon the arms 
^ the mother. In other 
^accs he has found pot- 
tery vessels filled with 

iweetmeats, near the head of the child, and yet it is the testi- ~\ 
Kmonyof the historians attending DeSoto in his expedition that 
I Urge chests full of woven garments were found in the dead 
I houses. In front of them the carved ima-^es, in the midst of 
f them vast numbers of pearls, showing the custom was as com- 




POTTERY FICURK PI 




r 



ETHNOGRAPHY OF ART IN AMERICA. 



mon among women as among men. Prof, Haddon divides the 
requirements of men into four parts — art, religion, information 
and wealth, — and places art first. Many ethnological questions 
come up in connection with these ornaments, but the geo- 
graphy of art helps us to answer them. 

Perforated stones were also used as ornaments, these were 
placed upon ceremonial staffs which had a bunch of feathers 




.— M»p oi Konh 



It the top. and were pointed at the lower end; they were com- 
Qcn in New Guinea, but were used also in California. A num- 
*«r of these stones were discovered by Dr. Stephen Bowers 
attached to the handles, and furnish an explanation of the 
Perforated stones in the region. 




THE AMEMiCAM JUmQUJIUASI. 

Tkc «aS m a fcaJgif •( aa l fc o n ty smcMg tfae savages. 
CaL L.aBr SsmCE atttes dut saar •( Ibc ciubs are constnclcd 
far oriiMEM&l aad satr jMrpoiei. awl Mr. H. R. Schoolcraft 
t tkax tke dite atkmled at the -zu dance, or for otticr 
r at* ays ta^cer thaa ChAse iateaded for practical use, 
paiTafcc ptadicaUjr of a s|iinboIicaI characier. Dr. 
wea Bowers states thai ibc poforatcd sioocs ran- from a 
t deliar m kzc to fiftcca ta c^ es - Chunkcy stones tete in 
IB aaooc dw eatfeiv lodiaas. as well as among the California 

V'll. Iewclr>' was ia quite commfra ose thiougbout boih 
coatiacflls of Amcnca. Gnuesqne human ^urcs, in pute gold 
and copper orplated ailh gold, bare been described by Mr V^' 
H. Holmes, higares of froga ia base metal, plated with gold. 
are also common. Grotesque 6gares hartng the human form 
carved in the round, were used in a stool made of clay; ihey 
have also been described by 
Mr. Holmes. These figures 
reveal considerable slcill rn the 
art of moulding and car%'iog in 
stone, but show a tasie for 
grotcMjucand hideous objects. 

The cut represents the 
jewelry which was common on 
the Northwest coast. These 
are decorated with the claims 
of the bear, showing that even 
jewelry was covered with 
mythologic figures. 

There are many specimens 
of jewelry in the province of 
Chiriqui: these are also very 
curious, but they represent the 
mingling of mythologic ideas 
with their art. 

The jewelry of the primeval 
inhabitants had an emblematic 
meaning and was regarded as 
having potent charms, capable 
of guarding and protecting 



the owm 



; the 



)rk was very 



skillfully doi 

A large number of other 
objects of stone and terra cotta 
have been gathered from Teo- '"""'■"■^ 
tihuacan and other sites in Mexico, . 
though their objects arc unknown. They 
portraits, or they may have been 




ETHNOGRAPHY OF ART IN AMERICA. 



213 



VIII. The basketry is worthy of attention. Many writers 
have treated this subject, among them are Prof. Oiis Mason 
and Mr. VV, H. Holmes, The best specimens are those found 
in Ca ifornia. Dr. Holmes says Southern California has much 
lo interest ihc student of archasology. 

The Tiilares are among the most expert of basket makers; 
;hey are a rude people, but have had contact with the whites; 
hey employ mortars, which they are skillful in working into 
iraceful forms, but their tnsle is mainly exercised in their 
laskeiry. There are many specimens of bottle-shaped baskets 
n the market, and they are quite common. The bowl-shaped 
laskets are decorated with the human form, but have conven- 
:ional figures. Three winnowing baskets, a low (lai-top bottle 




iiiiJ gambling Irays have been described by Dr. Holmes, who 
ilso succeeded in obtaining a ceremonial costume, consisting 
li a feathered headdress, ear ornaments, thorn needles, and 
nher items. The primitive skirt made of lonu strands, upon 
vhich were strung mats and beads; decoiative bone imple- 
nent^ and peculiar obsidian knives, supposed to be used in 
ilceding. were secured. Among the pendant ornaments were 
:htne of Abalonc shell. 

The feathered decorated baskets of the I'omo Indians of 
California are noticeable for iheir graceful shapes, as well as 
itiiamcntation. The carrying baskets resemble those common 
in the region. 

iX. Musical instruments were somewhat common in 
America in orehistoric limes, the best specimens of which were 
found in Peru. In the study of the musical instruments 




Ac ^"^ ■( Ac pMlnj- «( IW hrariaas is impottanl. (or 
fa—Btep— oyiJiMJ ii Ag— cin* f b i we derive mostirf 
— friiBii_%i. TW dr— ifprwff lo be iifetieal with those 
Tw fai^B of dra^ are shown in the 
r bcSs icaeaiiiaw oar dci^ bcUs a[>peaf to 
; fane, as ■■ Mcanoo: abo Tarious forms of 
J other parts of the 
which was quite 
KK. tfa^ had six 
whistling far, and a 
. pe-soa UowtDg through a 
> pottciy whistles, a pan pipe, 
ilbov. Theic was rcnr little kaown of [he musical 
Etht^zttsed lo indicate the live- 
- also used in Cential 
I by the cxanmation of the statues in 
iBxa. 
TW r rj Miaa fio M of pxres ta Costa Rica has brought to 
lieht maay idols. wfakA represest the flute players in various 
attitsdes. The discoieries made in the graves at Ancona. 
Peia. have also disclosed musical iostrurocnts, as well as 
woven goods and Biaay specimens of potter>'. Mr. Holmes' 
pamphlet on tbc Chinqui also coutaias many reptesentatioDS 
of musical iostranieots made of metal. 

Less is kuown of tbc musical an of the prehistoric people 
of this coQtineut than almost any other subject, and yet there 
were musical iasimments among all the tribes, for dancing, 
mourning and religious ceremonies were all conducted under 
the inspirstion of music, and the instruments were sometimei 
accompanied with the voice. There was ibe same distinction 
between the musical instruments of the different district', aa 
between the other products of art. for the instruments uf tht 
Southwest and Peru were quite varied and elaborate, while the 
wild tribes in the North had scarcely anything but the cone 
mon flute and drum. It is to be noticed that '.he stringed in- 
struments were very rare, if used at all. Dr. D. G. ^ri 
and Prof. Starr have written upon the subject. 




NIHANCAN, THE WHITE MAN. 

BY C. 5TAN1LAND WAKE. 

The most curious personage who appears in the traditional 
stories of the Arapaho Indians is called Nihancan, with refer- 
ence to whom Dr. A. L. Krocber has a note ("Origin Myth," 
No. 3, " Traditions of the Arapaho " ), which may be quoted as 
a fitting prelude to a consideraticn of his nature. Dr. Kroeber 
says: 

The Nihancan of these traditions is the Algonkin Manabozho, Napi.or 
Icliaike. He i* sometimes named as Ihe creator, but someliines ia not. 
Stwne old men say that perhaps Nihaocin made ibe world, but that it is not 
kBOWn oho did it. The word is dow the ordinary word [or white mtn ia 
Arapaho, just as in Cheyenne the name of Ihe mythical character Vihuk 
has been applied to the whiles. This is in accord with the tendency found 
elsewhere in America.* Among the Arapaho it may have cootribuled to a 
chanKe in the conceptions of the creation, especially as the name Hiatcaba 
Nibancan. atxive-white-man, ia the Arapaho name foi the God of the mis- 
sionaries. Nihancan means, however, also ''spider." and this is no doubt 
ibe original signification of the word, just ai Ihe Menomini character that 
corresponds to Nihancan is the rabbit. Among the Dakotas Ihe trickster 
Unktomi is the spider. Amonf the Sia the spider, SQssislinnako, ii the 
creator. The Hopi hare a mythological Spider woman, and amonK the 
Pima IGrosiman, Smiths. Rep,, rS?!, 407} a spider is the original creator. 
In none of the Arapaho myths is there Ihe slightesl trace of any animal or 
Spider-like qualities attributed (o N'ihan^:an. He is entirely human. Aparl 
from the hesitating identification of him with the creator of the world, he 
is not found as Ihe hero of any serious myths, but always in a ridiculous 
form and often la obscene tales. He is thus the equivalent of Ictinike and 
Unktomi, rather than of Napi and Miin^ibush. Among the Gros Ventre, 
where his name is Nivant. he shows somewhat more the character oi the 
creator in combination with that of trickster. , . . The word Nihancan 
H explained by the Indians as meaning wise or skillful, and again ai 
slender or narrow-bodied in reference to spiders and insects; but both 
etymologies are ancertain. 

The identification of this being with the white man in name, 
is a remarkable (act, which may have several explanations. 
Possibly it may be that the natives thought the character 
ascribed to Nihancan was similar to that exhibited by the whites 
with whom they came into contact! Or it may have been that 
the ingenuity and power shown by the whites was thought to 
be akin to that of Nihancan. Possibly, however, it was simply 
a question of complexion. There was evidently, according to 
the stories, something peculiar to Nihancan by which he was 
readily known. This peculiarity was probably the fairness of 
his skin, as in the story " Nihancan and the Mice's Sun Dance " 
(No. ^3) he is recognized, while his head is an elk's skull, by 
his color. It should be mentioned that in the Creation Myth 



aae THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

of the Arapaho Sun Dance, described by Dr. G. A. Dorsey, land 
across the ocean is made especially for Nihancao, which would 
seem to show that this part of the myth was added after the 
coming of the Europeans. 

In studying the chaiacter of Nihancan we will first con- 
sider him as the Creator. In the story entitled "The Flood, 
and Origin of the Cerennonial Lodges." after Blue-bird has 
been brought back to life by his brother Magpie, they meet 
Nihancan, who goes with tiiem and with Rock, who had a 
turtle moccasin, to ihe top of a high mountain to escape the 
avenging flood. Meeting with Nihancan is said to be a sign of 
death, probably because he doomed ihe people to death, when 
he threw a stone into the water, for the stone sinks and cannot 
return. The flood remains high a long time, and Rock sends 
his moccasin, as a turtle, down to find the earth. The turtle 
comes up with mud in each of its armpits, and goes down 
again, first for a short rib and then for a bulrush. Then, it is 
said. ■■ he sprinkled the earth which the turtle had brought him 
about the place where he was, and with the rib he pointed in 
the four directions. As he pointed, the land spread out in 
those direciions to the ends of the earth. Then he pointed 
above and made ihe vault of the sky. Now the earth was bare. 
Then the one with the turtle moccasins made corn from the 
bulrush. After this, Nihancan lived in the sky and was called 
our father. After referring to a change of language, the 
story continues: " And Nihancan gave the Arapaho the mid- 
dle of the earth to live in, and all oihers were to live around 
ihcm." Here the apparent creator is Ihe Rock, he who has (he 
turtle moccasins, but. as in Origin Myth (No. i) Ihe creator is 
the Father, probably a confusion has been made in the narra- 
tive between the Rock and Nihancan. In a legend cited by Dr. 
Kroeber (Myth No. 3, note 6) the whole of the creation incident 
is ascribed to Nihancan, ending with the statement that he 
" also made the rivers, Ihe streams and the mountains." This 
is exactly the role ascribed to him in the Creation Myth given 
by Dr. G. A. Dorsey in his "Arapaho Sun Dance." After the 
Man has created the land and placed the mountains and rivers, 
Nihancan appears on the scene, and asks for power to motion 
for mountains and rivers. He was told to do so, and then "he 
lifted his staff and motioned in every direction, forming hills 
and creeks of all si7.es." This may have been the limit of his 
creative power.* but it is possible also thai Nihancan may have 
been the "Father with the Flat Pipe" of the other Origin 
Myths, particularly if, as is not improbable, we are to under- 
stand by Flat Pipe the sexi'al organs. 

If Nihancan was not the real creator of Arapaho myth, he 
was at least regarded as the giver of death. In the Sun Dance 




■ NIHANCAN. THE WHITE MAN. aar 

"Myth, the '■ Man," who is accredited with creation, throws intc 
the water soine Cottonwood pith, which comes again to the sur- 
face, and says; " This is the way all you people shall live on the 
earth." Nihancan steps up to the Man and asks if he may say 
a word relative to I he life hereafter. His request being granted, 
he said the earth was not very large and if the people increased 
rapidly there might not be room for them. He then threw a 
p>;bble into the water and it sank for good. He then said: 
■■That is the way life should be hereafter," and this was en- 
dorsed by the creating Man. Such, also, is the origin of death 
given in the "Traditions of the Arapaho," and, as mentioned 
above, to meet Nihancan was regarded as a sign of death. It 
appears, indeed, to have been fatal to many beings, according 
to the stories. He kills animals by wholesale, not as a hunts- 
man, but through trickery. Usually he induces birds to dance 
to his singing, with their eyes shut, and ihen he strikes them 
on the head with a club. A similar fate awaits the beavers 
which, at his suggestion, leave their old home for a new one. 
He induces a herd of elk to run a race with him, and causes 
them to fall over a high cliff. He sends the bear women to 
gather flowers, offerii.g to take care of their children, whom he 
kills, putting their bodies into the kettle to boil and their heads 
back into the cradles. The bear women chase him, but he 
inveigles Ihem into a tunnel, where he suffocates them, and 
. then cooks their bodies for food. Nihancan is equally regard- 
less of human life. He induces a man to climb a high peak to- 
take some young eagles, and while the man is climbing he com- 
mands the peak to increase in height, which it does and be- 
comes so high that the man cannot descend. Nihancan thei> 
takes the man's clothes and weapons and assumes the position 
of husband to the man's wife. After some time the man is 
rescued by some geese, and then he goes home and kills Nihan- 
can, who, however, comes to life again. After this, is intro- 
duced the incident of his throwing a pebble into water to see 
whether the people wouUi live forever or die. In another case, 
Nihancan is said to have caused a tree to stretch upwards, so 
that Rec'-Stick-Man could not descend He then dressed him- 
self in the youth's clothes and took his lance, personating him 
and marrying his intended wife. (See " Nihancan and the 
Seven Sisters.") As Father Above, on the other hand, he is 
represented, in "The Flood and Origin of the Ceremonial! 
Lodges," as comforting a murderer by sending him buffalo and 
instructing him in the ceremonies of the lodges to give to the 
people. 

One of the chief characteristics of Nihancan is his sen- 
suality. This forms the subject of many of the Arapaho 
stories. To be able to gratify his sensual instinct he adopts all 
sorts of expedients, the invention of which shows the fertility 
of the native imagination, no less thin the gross sensuality of 
his nature. He makes use of animals to accomplish his p"- 



^ 



MB THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARMtl 

pose; discuises bimMlf as a woman; pretends to be dead tha^^K 
tn disguise he may act the part of a husband with his owr^^ci 

daughter, and adopts other methods too disgusting to be racB 

tioncd. Dcceplion enters into most of these cases, and thi "■ '■ 

forms one of the most general features of Nihancan's char 

actcr. He is, indeed, the great deceiver and. like another-^^ 
similar character, the " father of lies." may be said to go about^»"t 
" like a roaring lion seeking whom he may devour." Animalss^s 
stiow their superiority to him by their trusting nature, which ^"t 
he makes use of to induce them to dance, to run a race, or to^KZD 

change their abode that he may kill them, which he docs reck 

lessty and without regard to his own need of food. He has a _^^ 
contest in cunning, that is, deceit, with the coyote, the animaL^Kl 

with whom the Old Man creator is identified in Crow legend - 

Nihancan transforms himself into various animals and layi. " 
himself in the coyote's path, but he is always detected. The — ^ 
coyote then transforms himself into a woman, who again be- — 
comes a coyote and runs away when Nihancan seizes her and ^ 
throws her on (he ground. 

One of the cases which shows best the evil disposition of " 
Nihancan. is that related in the story of "Nihancan pursued 
by the Rolling Stone." The stone having been insulted by 
Nihancan. pursues him and rolls on him, pressing him dowa. 
It becomes heavier and heavier, and he calls on birds and 
animals to come to his rescue. A hawk kills itself in trying to 
break the stone, but the buM-bat is more successful and releases 
Nihancan. who expresses his gratitude and tells it to come aad ^^h 
be kissed. The bull-bat docs so. and Nihancan seizes its head^^^| 
and stretches its mouth wide open, saying it was for breakin|f^^^| 
the stone in pieces! Although so cunning. Nihancan is easily^^| 
over-reached, especially by the coyote and by women, who, 
knowing his character, take pleasure in deceiving him. In the 
story of " ^'ihancan and the Mice's Sun Dance" (No. 53) he 
gets his head fastened in an ox skull and thus floats down a 
river. He is rescued by some women, who allow him to rest 
his head on their knees In this position he goes to sleep, and 
they fill his hair with cockle-burs and then leave him. This 
incident forms the subject also of the story "Nihancan Cuts 
His Hair," which he does to get rid of the burrs. 

We have seen that Nihancan is deceived as well as deceiver, 
and foolishness may be regarded as one of his characteristics. 
He amuses himself by rolling against magic arrows which open, 
when stuck in the ground in a row. to let him through. He 
does this too often, and finally he becomes impaled on the 
arrows. He sees a man who has the power of throwing his 
eyes up into a tree and bringing them back again. The man 
transfers the power to him, but sayi he is to do it only four 
times in succession. He takes no heed of this condition and 
his eyes stick to the tree To recover them, he borrows the 
eyes of a mole, which has been blind ever since, as Nihancan 



NrHANCAN.THE WHITE MAN. 229 

r its cyc> away when he had done with them. His foolish- 
B is shown especially in his attempts to imitate the exploits 
performed by great medicine men. When a man brought food 
down from above with which to entertain Nihancan, he invited 
the man to come and witness the same thing. He then told 
his children to drop their bags of food in front of the hut. when 
he called for food. He called but the food did not come, and 
Nihancan found that his children had all gone to sleep ! 

In some of these stories Nihancan's ingratitude is a promi- 
nent feature, but we will leave this and consider another lead- 
ing characteristic to be ascribed to him, that of possessing 
occult power. In the stories which speak of his attempts to 
imitate the actions of medicine men he is represented as 
signally failing, but in the stories "Nihancan usurps a Father's 
Place" and '■ Nihancan and the Seven Sisters," he is accredited 
xiritb power of a peculiar nature. I n the former of these stories 
he causes a mountain peak to increase its height to prevent a 
man from descending, and in the other story he causes a tree 
lo grow upwards, with the same object. This feat is performed 
also by the moon in the story of "The Porcupine and the 
Woman who Climbed to the Sky." and. although a remarkable 
one, it would be regarded as a matter of course to the native 
mind which desired to bring about a particular result. The 
greatest power ascribed to Nihancan is. of course, that of 
Creator, a role which can hardly be imagined of so despicable 
and weak a character as he is described as being, although we 
have his parallel, as we shall see, in Ahriman. the evil creative 
god of Persian mythology. It is interesting to note that in the 
stories of some other Indian tribes, the evil being improves in 
character. This change was due probably to the influence of 
foreign ideas, introduced by missionaries or other white people, 
and the improvement must rep;-esent that of the native mind 
itself. 

Reference has already been made to the fact that the 
Arapaho Indians apply the name Nihancan to the whites, and 
it was suggested that this may have been owing to their com- 
plexion. White animals are regarded by the natives of 
America, as by many other peoples, as having asuperiority over 
similar animals of a different color, and as being sacred. This 
is shown in the Arapaho story of "The White Buffalo Cow." 
Before shooting at this animal, the hunter has to tell a war 
story, and its hide, which is called "sacred," is carried to the 
high priest's tipi. The Pledger of a Buffalo Lodge 13 called 
White-Buffalo- Woman in the story of the "Origin of the 
Bnfialo Lodge" (No. 12). In another account of the " Origin 
ol the Buffalo Lodge" (No. 14). a man sees in a vision a num- 
ber of men and women turn into buffalo and then disappear, 
eitcept a white cow; and then the dance (lodge) was made the 
first time, for a woman who had a sick relative. In the Arapahct 
stones reference is also made to the White Dog, who makes 



230 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

love to a woman, by whom he has seven puppy children, an 
who is really the Sun-Man. In ** Thunder- Bird and Whit 
Owl/' the owl is the spirit of the snow storm and the asker o 
difficult questions; as is also the Owl-Woman in the story of 
*• Raw-Gums and White-Owl-Woman." White Crow is the 
owner of all the buffalo. He is outwitted by men, however, 
and not only loses the buffalo, but is turned black through 
being tied to the top of a tent where the smoke comes out. 

The opposition of white to black is well known to the Old 
World, where it is applied in relation to magic, which is white 
or black according to whether it is good or bad in its intention, 
the magical operations being the same in either case. In one 
of the stories associated with the name of Moses, we are told 
that the Egyptian conjurors imitated all the feats performed 
by Moses, whose superiority was finally established through 
the fact of the serpent, into which his staff had been changed, 
swallowing the <:erpent-staff of Jambres. In the two world 
powers of Zoroastrian cosmogony we have a similar opposi- 
tion. Ahura Mazda creates the world of light, with the 
primeval ox from which all other good beings on earth 
emanate. Thereupon Ahriman creates the world of darkness, 
vrith its creatures, and constantly wages war against the crea- 
tures of Ahura Mazda, slaying even the sacred primeval ox. 
There is a close similarity between Nihancan and the Persian 
gocJ of evil. Both figure as creators, but after the primary 
creator, except where, as in the case of Nihancan, he is credited 
with bein^ the only creator. This may be a later view of his 
work, or it may be that this was the original view, the ** Father" 
idea as distinguished from that of the *'01d Man " being a later 
development. Most propably, however, the notion of two 
opposing; deiries in nature, one good and the other evil, which 
i* entertained very generally among uncultured peoples, has 
ini^uenced the Orii:in Myths of the Indians. Usually the evil 
kein*: is the one to attract, more especially, the popular mind, 
allhv'»Ui;;h the ^joc^d being may be recognized in ceremonial cult 
which has tor its ob ect the attainment of some blessing. The 
fundamental teatures ot the character of Nihancan are un- 
doubteo'.v those o: selnshness and mischief, combined with 
l^ivVitssv ;ts;:Al :\ ana vieceit. and a spider-like cunning.^ In these 
vha!ao:<^:s he has :r.;:ch in cc^mmon with the Satan or Devil of 
the I u:v>pea;*. Muivile A^res, the idea of whom was most prob- 
aMv v*.x*rived. ;,*.x:::ectlv. from the Persian evil deitv Ahriman. 
Chust a:v.:v .v,':.:o.:b*e\r.y :ov*k over much of the teaching of 
•*oivVAs;e:. \\h xh acc\^;:r.:s tor the intensity of the opposition 
l^twt\*;^ M::h:a s:r an^i Chr:s:xaaity during the early centuries 
ot v^u! era 

l« v^. e^au' ^t^^:ho\\:v the Spirit of Evil becomes the 
WxVtt^tei ot ;^o o.esr;\ the ^rt-at homed serpent of Christian 




^^^^^^ NIHANCAN.THE WHITK MAN. 

mylhology. A similar creature, although on a smaller scale, 
-occupies an unique position in Arapaho legend. In the story 
of "Lime Crazy" he is called " F"atlier of Waters." or hiintchd- 
^iit. the great water monster, which is his usual title, and he is 
represented as horned. In the story of "The Man Who be- 
came a Snake," a man cats some snake's eggs and gradually 
changes until he becomes a big snake, with long body and very 
large eyes. He goes with his companion to a river and tells him 
be is going to stay in the deep water against the bank, and then 
darts into the river. The story of "The Woman and the 
Monster" gives a good eccount of the ideas entertained by the 
Indians of the hiinchtibiit. In crossing a stream, a woman is 
carried away by the water but finds herself on a sand bank, 
T/here she lees two men. They take her to their master, the 
water monster, who appears as a fine young man. He has 
intercourse with her and then tells her that he is the owner of 
rivers and lives against thesteep banks where the water is deep. 
He instructs her what offerings the people are to make him in 
order to cross rivers in safely, calling himself their Grand- 
father, " Last Child." This snake monster would seem to be 
regarded as the head of all medicine animals, as he is described 
as having on each side of him various animals, each with its 
own medicine bag. 

There is nothing in the Arapaho stories by which Nihancan 
can be identified in any way with the water monster. Last Child, 
as Satan was with the G'-eat Serpent. They belong, hcwever, 
to the same order of ideas,* ideas which would seem to have 
been widely spread in the Old World before the reform of ihe 
Persian religion effected by Zoroaster. The old Asiatic devil 
Shaitan, the prototype of Ahriman, still roves in spirit over the 
deserts of Central Asia and the Siberian steppes, as the spirit 
of Nihancan wandcrsabout the American prairies, and it is quite 
possible that if their lineagd were traced they would be found 
to have a common ancestor. The facts seem to point to the 
conclusion, that the ideas combined in the Indian traditional 
stories belong to a culture area which included the greater part 
of Asia as well as North Ameria, as I have elsewhere pointed 
out. In the meanwhile, it may be well to cite the note given at 
the end of Petitot's excellent Monograph on the D^n^-Dindjie 
of the Northwest, where he refers to the astonishment exhibi- 
ted by the Abb^ tage, on hearing the author speak in this 
American language, at finding that many of its words were 
similar to those in Tibetan. 




A PREHISTORIC SCANDINAVIAN SUN CHARIOTi^ 

BY JOSEPH OFFORD. 

Last year the aotiqiiariaD world was delighted with the new» 
that a unique relic in the shape of a bronze "Chariot of the 
Sun " had been discovered in Scandinavia, and was placed in 
the Copcnhafcn Museum. This valuable piece of ancient art 
workmanship has now been published with a magniliccnt quarto 
size photographic reproduction, and several smaller pUtes, by 
Dr. Sophus Mutler, in a monograph entitled "SolbiUcdet Fra 
Trundholm," and we furnish our readers with an illustration of 
the chariot and horse complete. 

The approximate date of this object can satisfactorily be 
determined by the style of ornamentation applied to the two 
sides of the bronze soiar disk. It shows that it appertains to 
the very earliest period of the Bronze Age in northern Europe, 
and the portion of Seeland, in Denmark, from which it came 
has already furnished archaeologists with many relics of the 
same civiliiation. Dr. Sophus MuUer is even of the opinion 
that it was fabricated most probably in the peninsula of Jut- 
land from which it has been disinterred. 

If the objects of similar style previously found thereabouts, 
have also been manufactured there, this view may be correct, 
but it is, at present, impossible to decide what bronze relics 
have been made in the localities, near the Baltic, wherein they 
are preserved, and what have been brought there from Southern 
Europe, in exchange for amber, or by warriors returning from 
their raids in North Italy or Thrace. 

The style of ornamentation points to the end of the second 
millenary before the Christian Era, and the chariot was cer- 
tainly not made more recently than looo B. C. All the orna- 
mentation is punched or embossed in the bronze, which has 
been cast in a mold. There are two thin disks of bronze of 
equal size, the edges of which are secured all around by a cir- 
cular band bent over the edge. The ornamentation is not pre- 
cisely the same on both the half metallic pieces which forn* 
the disk. The art concepts in the figures utilized are similar; 
but their arrangement is altered, probably merely for variety 
and to indicate the skill of the artist. One side, moreover, is 
covered, after the ornamentation had been applied to the 
bronze, by a thin leaf or plate of gold. It would appear as if 
the whole object was intended to be placed in some shrine, and 
visible from one side only, and. as gold was of extreme value, 
that side only was ffllt. It may have stood upon an altar, or 
pedestal, facing a window, or orifice, of small dimensions look- 
ing eastward, with the gilded side of the disk in that direction. 



^_k 



A PREHISTORIC SCANDINAVIAN SUN CHARIOT. 



*» 



SO that the rays of the sun, perhaps at sunrise, would impinge 
upon the elided disk. 

The relic itself is much damaged, being broken up into 
numerous fragments, and from the manner in which these were 
found deposited in the peaty soil at Trundholm, archxologists 
UDanimously agree it was purposely broken; for instance, the 
gold plaque is torn into about twenty strips. The missing 
fragments have been searched for in vain all around, and so, 
from one cause or another, were not placed with the remnants 
that have now been secured. The fractures of the bronze por- 
tions are, in the case of some of the very fragile parts, caused 
by the natural disintegration of the metal; but that does not 
explain the breaking of the castings where they are compara- 




lively stout and strong, and Dr. Sophus Muller concludes it 
was not placed complete in the soil, as a treasure in a hiding 
place, but deposited in the guise of an offering; and if this 
offering were to some deceased personage, purposely broken, 
as were by nearly all races, many votive offerings to the names 
of the dead. 

The horse is complete, except the tail, the projection form- 
ing part of a tail, has a hole at the end for either a bronze pro- 
longation to fit into it, or, more probably, lor a small imitation 
horse-hair tail to be secured. The centre axle is fixed to » 
sort of pole, which also originally connected with the front 
axle, and upon these two axles were placed bearings for the 
horse's feet. The whole of the work, both horse and chariot, 
therefore ran upon wheels. Below the horse's neck and upon 




I 



g a cord 
I the disk, the 
t piece of work 
• mt Gnafc: mUmcmt* al so cailjr a date. 
K «f das fcfic a as vafaiable as its 
■est of tiK prcval- 
_ e n prehistonc times. 
c flC a ■ wjj(,i. lo the North Sea ta the 
e oi Alc^Mder the GccaC b itS partiaUy extant, spoke of 
ike re > tjgau e Ae Silhua hoitaniHs paid to tbe son. As also 
does Cxsar m kit racacd of te Cuiaa campaigns. But Dr. 
Kari BUhL of Loodoo. who has bee* wntiBg and Icctunng 
«po« the varioos w di i r cts npoa arUcfa Ibis aew monufncot 
throws l^t. poaots oot thai in the old «Tth. or Saga, of the 
None race, kiMwnas Ac "Voa^crEdda," the Car of the Sun 
as bciag drawn bjr bocs cs is actnalljr referred to; further, the 
ssB is said lo drive the steeds ia the ** Oltler Edda " : ^1 

With ber ncht kud held V 

The h^venlT tune*. 

Id Odin's " Raocr Song" the day, called the Son of " Del- 
Itng," drives the sun, who is termed the " Dwarf Dvalin's 
Dcludcr,*' over Hanahetm (maii*s home), the world; 

Tbe Son of DtUiag 

Urged oo his «tecd 

Adorned with pte«>ou« itonei, 

Orer Uumbeim sbon; 

Tbe lM>r»«'i mane; 

Tbe Dwarf Dvalin's Delnder 

He drew in bis chariot. 

The sun in North Europe was called a wheel, Vule tide 
means wheel tide, and the rolling of fiery wheels down ibe 
hillsides was recently in many parts of Scandinavia, France 
and Germany a folk-lore practice. The northern Sun goddess 
had a daughter, which unites itself with the Hellenic daughters 
of the Sun. the Heliades. The Greeks connected them with 
a river, Rhodanos. or Eridanos, which some classic authors 
placed in Spain, or connected with the Italian Padus; but Dr. 
Karl Blind points out, a branch of the Vestula was the 
Rhodan, and os is merely a Greek ending to the name. Now. 
the Greek Sun daughters. Heliades, were said to have been 
changed into trees and their tears hardened into amber. 
Herein lies the ground of connection with the Baltic, for from 
thence the Greeks obtained their much prized amber; and, 
strange to say, the Heliades' myth appears to show they wera 
aware that it was a product of the gum. or resin, of trees. 
The Rhodan(os) flowed into the Baltic amber-producing shore, 
and this story of the Sun daughters appears to have been 
brought by fresh traders passing up the Vistula and dowQ the 



y '\ 



A PREHISTORIC SCANDINAVIAN SUN CHARIOT. 235 

Horysthenes to Greece, and thus Ihis Northern Sun Chariot 
miueles itself with our more well known classic mythology. 

But there is another connecting link with the Semitic races, 
for II. Kings xxiii: 11, shows that sun chariots were an object 
af worship in the Hebrew temple, and as it was considered 
dolatrous they, like other pagan symbols that had obtained 
:ntTance there, were destroyed. That they were articles of 
tdoration is certain, because Babylonian inscriptions have 
eccntly been found relating to the worship of the Sun God 
I^hariot. This cult may have been introduced into Mcsopo- 
amia by the Accadians, or Sumerians, who, for all we know, 
vere of the same race as the earlier inhabitants of Scandinavia. 
Certainly we have records of Sumerian and other tribes 
settling in Western Asia. On the other hand, the idea of a 
iun God Chariot may have spread from Asia to Europe, but 
Jaey obviously are of the same concept and united by some 
racial link at present not clearly manilest. 

In an essay published last year I showed conclusively that 
the Rain Maker, or Kettle Wagons, of Thrace and Northern 
Europe and Cyprus were absolutely identical with the wagons 
made by Hiram of Tyre for Solomon's Temple, and, therefore, 
'I is not surprising to find a similarity between the Sun Chariot 
Trundholm and those of Babylon and Palestine.* 



SHELL HEAPS OF THE LOWER ERASER RIVER. 
BRITISH COLUMBIA. 



UV HARLAN 1 



»1 



The most extensive remains of the early inhabitants of the 
North Pacific coast of America are shell heaps, made up of 
layers of shells and other refuse from their villages. These 
arc very numerous, and vary in size from the refuse of a single 
night's camp to ridges covering acres. In places the accumula- 
[ions reach a heighth of nine feet. That these arc at least 
several hundred years old, is indicated by the giant stumps 
standing on ihem. There is a difference in the materials and 
:he various objects lost among them by the primitive people; 
;he heaps along the sea beaches being different from those 
ilong the Lower Eraser River in that they seldom contain 
burials, arc composed more largely of shell material, and in 
that fewer specimens are found in them. 

These shell heapi were first mentioned by Bancroft in 1875. 
later by Dawson of the Canadian Geological Survey in 1877. 
The first systematic exploration was conducted by the writer 
for the Jesup North Pacific Expedition. The work was done 



nph ralkdug u 



Tag MMtMKAV UmOfJAMMAm. 

■a i8^ and 1S98 xt Port KaBmoad, die fomicr terminm of t)i^~ 
Cana&aa Pai^fic F^^*"-"*. aad at Eburoc, which is about si;£- 
mites sooth of VaacoBvcr. The specimens collected arc pie-^ 
served amo»g the cxaOcctioos of the Americaa Museum o^^^ 
natural HistotT-, asd the results of this cxpiotatioD arc pub—^ 
listed ia the Foorth volomc of the Memoirs ol that Institu- 
tioa. 

The potter's art was unkDown to the natives of the region.-- 
The specimens fouod in the deepest layers of the shell heaps 
are similar to those found in the upper or more recent layers, 
while all of them are somewhat similar to the objects made by 
the preseot Indians of the regioo. These objects include 

Eoinis chipped and ground out of stone for arrows, knives, and 
arpoons,— the points rubbed out of bone for similar purposes; 
pcsiles, hammers, mortars, siooe chisels, whetstones, awls, and 
needles. Bones of the dog were found, indicating that these 
people made use of this animal. 

The physical type or part cf these people, as indicated by 
their bones, differed ver\- much from that of the modern 
Indians, while another part seems to have been of the same 
type. Many evidences of contact with people of the interior 
were found, and it seems that the culture of the ancient peo- 
ple who discarded the shells forming those heaps near Van- 
couver was in all essential particulars similar to that of the 
tribes inhabiting the same area, but that it was under a much 
stronger influence from the interto; than ts found at the present 



RECENT DISCOVERIES IN ROME. 



I 



The winter season has witnessed the progress of excavations 
in the Campus Martius aod the Forum; but in the case of the 
Ara Pads the technical difficulties to be surmounted, arising 
from the fact that the woik has to be carried on partly below 
a thoroughfare and partly under the Palazzo Fiano. have ren- 
dered the exploration of the site a slow and costly process. 
The engineering works directed by Sipnor Cannizzaro will 
doubtless permit ihc solution of the important questions 
regarding the surroundings of the altar-prrcinct and the 
recovery of the remaining fragments of sculpture. So far, 
however, it has not even been found possible to raise the fine 
panel of the frieze with the figures of Hamines, although a slab 
on which is carved a bearded figure (ideally representing the 
Roman Senate) in the act of offering sacrifice has been brought 
to the surface. This is specially interesting since the adjoin- 
ing block, which completes the scene, was discovered in 1859 
and is now in the Musco delle Terme. The recent finds have 



RECENT DISCOVERIES IN ROME. 237 

fortunately settled tbe difficult question as to the distribution 
■4if the various sculptures on the four sides of the building, and 
the results have been set forth in a preliminary report by 
Professor Pasqui, the director of the excavations, and in 
papers by Professor Petersen of the German Institute, whose 
previous conclusions have been in some respects modified. No 
place can be found for two of the reliefs in the Villa Medici, 
tormerly supposed to have belonged to the Ara Facts, but the 
villa retains other panels, including that on which Augustus 
himself is represented. This, together with another fragment, 
was used in the sixteenlh century to form a pasticcio with 
.plaster restorations, and it is much to be wished that both it 
and the other panels similarily treated might be removed from 
their present position and placed beside those portions of the 
•monument which have been subsequently discovered, Let us 
hope that the cordial relations between France and Italy, so 
signally manifested on the occasion of M. Loubet's visit to 
Rome, may be further exemplified by the transference to 
Italian hands of these memorials of Imperial Rome It must 
be mentioned that the work of the excavators has been 
seriously hampered by scarcity of funds. It is to be hoped 
that the financial difficulties from which the Ministry of Public 
Instructions suffers will not be allowed to interfere with the 
speedy completion of so excellent a piece of work. 

The aspect of the Forum continues to give evidence of the 
unflagging energy of Comm. Boni. Visitors to the Basilica of 
-Constantine may now see portions of the original pavement in 
colored marbles, partly buried under huge blocks of concrete 
which have fallen from the loity vaulting. The exploration 
of the prehistoric tombs beside the Sacra Via has also made 
steady progress, and the series of "augural pits" which seem 
to mark the limits of the Forum as laid down by Julius Cassar 
has been traced at the eastern end, beside and beneath the 
temple of the great Dictator. 

But the centre of interest unquestionably lies in the area of 
the Forum itself. Readers of The Times yi'xW recollect that in 
the course of last summer Comm. Boni discovered beneath the 
pavement of the later Empire the foundation of a large monu- 
ment, which he identified from its position with the famous 
equestrian statue of Domilian described by Statius. This 
identification seems in a fair way to be generally accepted, 
although sceptics profess to find a difficulty in the position of 
the three sockets in which the supports which carried the legs 
of the Imperial charger are supposed to have been fixed. It 
is true that their arrangement does not correspond with that 
usually observed in existing equestrian statues, such as that of 
Marcus Aurelius on the Capitol; but Comm. Boni believes that 
a satisfactory restoration is possible- Meantime, he has insti- 
tuted a search for the deposit made at the time of the in- 
auguration of the monument, which has led to most unex- 



2^ THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

pcctcd remits. The deposit, indeed, was fcuad in a specially 
coftstructed chamber of travertine, embedded in tbr concrete 
'foundation; but it consisted of five vases precisely resembling 
^ those found in the later tombs of the prehistoric necropolis by 
I the Sacra Via, wbtch date from the latter part of the eighth 
century B. C. The vases contained nothing but a piece of 
native gold and minute quantities of pilch and lortoise-sbell. 
Comm, Coni sees in the presence of the gold nugget a proof 
that the deposit dates from the inaugural ceremony, comparing 
the statement of Tacitus (Hist. IV., 5j) that when ihefounda- 
J'tionsof the new temple of Jupiter Capitoiinus were laid by 
■ Vespasian, passim ittieelae fundamentis argcnti attrique stiffs tt 
metaiiomm primitive, nuilis /onuu-ibus vuttu. it J ut gignutUxr. In 
that case we must suppose that vases were made for ritual pur- 
poses in exact imitation of the fabrics of the eighth century 
B. C; and some support is lent to this view by the fact that 
pottery of a rude and archaic character has been found io tht 
grove of the Dea Dia, where the ceremonies of the ArvaL 
brotherhood were performed, and seems to have been in use in 
Imperial times. Others, however, have put forward the view 
that an ancient tomb was discovered by the workmen in laying 
I the foundation for Domitian's statue, and that a place wu 
I' made for its contents as nearly ^s possible on the spot where 
' they were found. The grouping and variety of the vases ce(- 
tainly suggests a sepulchral deposit. 

Lacus Curtius a-nd the Various Changes. 
A still more interesting discovery was made in the latter 
part of April- Comm. Boni has long been eager to find the 
»pot so famous in Roman legend as the Lacus Curtius. The 
familiar story of the chasm filled by the self-sacrifice oi 
Marcus Curtius, which was placed by tradition in 362 B.C. 
was not without rival versions. Some historians traced the 
name to Mettius Curtius, the leader of the Sabines in their 
battle with Romulus; others, whose rationalism took a more 
prosaic tinge, to Cains Curtius, Consul in 445 B. C, who *as 
said to have erected a putcal on the site where a thunderbolt 
had fallen. The popular story, however, is doubtless the old- 
est, and seems to be commemorated by a bas-relief, said to 
have been discovered in the Forum in 1553 and preserveii j" 
the Palazzo del Conservator!, whose antiquity has been called i" 
question, probably without sufficient reason. What is ceriain 
is that by the close of the Republican period the A/nw had been 
replaced by an altar at which offerings were made to the Manes 
of Curtius. Ovid, in fact, says (Fast. VI., 404): 



Comm. Boni noticed, in the pavement of the later Empire, s 
block which had evidently formed the angle of an enclose'* 



RECENT DISCOVERIES IN ROME. 



239- 



precinct, orientated not by the lines of the Imperial Forum, 
but by those of Republican constructions. The pavement was 
removed, and beneath it was found a paved enclosure of 
irregular shape, at Ihc south end of which was a circulir 
foundation ol tufa blocks. In a cavity in one of these blocks 
were the charred remains of a sacrifice — perhaps ihe last 
offered to the shade of Curlius, if the identification with the 
Lacus Curliua and its altar be correct. The precinct appears 
to have contained other monuments beside the altar of Curtius 
and to have been altered in shape, if not in position, nioie than 
once. Comm. Boni thinks that these alterations may have been 
connected with the rebuilding of the Basilica Julia, which is 
separated from the enclosure only by the Sacra Via and honor- 
ary monuments of the fourth century A. D,, and intends to 
make a thorough "stratigraphical " exploration of this portion 
of the Foium, which should lead to important results. It is 
also hoped that the coming summer will see further progress 
made with the excavation of the Basilica Aemilia, while there 
has been some talk of the commencement of the long-deferred 
researches on the Palatine, which should determine the site of 
the temple of Apollo and Palace of Augustus. 

In conclusion, it is worthy of mention that those present 
at the final meeting of the German Institute on the "birthday 
of Rome" were privileged to see the fragments of an Imperial 
monument, discovered in the course of the construction of the 
new Piazza dell' Escdra, which have been presented by their 
owner. Dr, Hartwig, to the Museo delle Terme. Their chief 
interest lies in the fact that on one of them is represented in 
relief the temple of Quirinus, in whose pediment we see a 
group which unmistakably depicts the auguries taken by 
Romulus at the foundation of Rome. A flight of birds hovers 
in the centre of the pediment, while Romulus and Remus with 
attendant divinities occupy the wings. It has not yet been 
possible to determine to what monument these sculptures- 
belong. 




K 



MONUMENTS OF PRIMITIVE PHARAOHS. 

BV JOSEPH OFFORD. 

Id E(ryptiaii archwilogy it may truly be said that it '^ 
tbe unexpEcied that (requently happens, and this ht- ** 
recently beeo exemplified by the discovery that confim^^'*' 
tion of the careers of the exceedingly early dyna s^^^^ 
Pharaohs whose fragmentarj' records were unearthed ^^■T 
M. Amelineau and Professor Petrie. at Abydos, has bee^*" 
forthcoming from reliefs aud texts carved upon the rocl — ^^ 
In the Sinai peninsula. For a complete account of tt::^^^* 
researches, that have afforded this information, as far as ^^*' 

S resent possible, students must refer to two articles b^^^J 
[ -Raymond Weil in the Rt-^-ue Arck/i>iogiipie for 1903, e^^**" 
tilled "Inscriptions Egyptiens du Sinai." His attentio^^" 
was called to the matterearty in last year upon finding tb^^^^ 
in addition to the publication, in 1^^, by M. G. Btn^dit^^*' 
-of the existence of a monument of Noutirka. or Xoslri. c=^' 
the third dynasty, at the Wady Magharah, there were i. " 

England many copies of Egyptian Sinaitic texts z — " 

ajicrs and squeezes taken by three British traveller^^' 
hese were Professor Palmer. Rev. F. W, Holland an^^*i 
Major Macdonald, the last of whom, accompanied by hi -' 
wife, resided during the final years of his life in thi^^ 
Magharah valley at Sinai. 

The requisite documents M. Weil desired to examin^^ 
vrere found at the British Museum aud the offices in Ixtndof:^ 
of the *- Palestine Exploration Fund," and he immediately^ 
detected the name ■■ Mersefcha." one of the earliest knowc=^ 
of alt the Pharaohs of the first dynasty. This is the titl^^ 
of the king whose name frequently appears, particularly^ 
upon sinaU objects, deposited in the archaic Thinite tomb^^ 
at Abydoft. and it is supposed to be the " Horus name " o"^^ 

Sjimou—Semempses, a late monarch of the the first dynast}^ '• 

The name Mersekba is most clearly inscrit>ed at Sinai --'■ 
twice in an archaic sqnare **Honis Cartouche" surmounted^ 
with a tlpurc of the Horns Hawk, or Falcon- It is no -^^ 
written mer-^-kba as on the royal clinders from Abydo^^^ 
bnt a« s-mer-kba. which is the f<H-m given to it on the pot=^V' 
tery from that site. 

Vtn the Sinai relief the king is first represented in th- -' 
act of exv\-utiog a ^yriac captive, with his mace. Thei^=^- 

X wi^-e, standing uiw^nt: osce wearing the crown of Uppei ■ 

*mi iwce that of Lower Egypt. The representation of thi 
exvx'utUw of (urvaoners is practically identical with a sin " 
•v**!!* vlvpkt«*i upon aa archaic plaqne of King Den, in 






MONUMENTS OF PRIMITIVE PHARAOHS. 



2*» 



Macgregor collection, in which, as on the Mersekha relief, 
the Horus name, only, of the Pharaoh is given. In fact, 
as M. Weil remarks, the style and workmanship of the two 
tableaux indicates that Mersekha and Den must have been 
almost contemporaries. The relief and tablet, or cartouche, 
of Noutirkha, or Zosiri, are lamentably effected, but his 
"Horusname" is perfectly clear. The king is delineated 
in a somewhat similar attitude to Mersekha, with a kneel- 
ing Asiatic, imploring mercy, before him. This relief has 
an accompanying inscription, the well-known formula: 
"Give riches, stability, life, and joy forever." There is a 
third relief of similar character, with a text: "Give ever- 
lasting life," but unfortunately the Pharaoh's name does 
not appear upon any of the copies of it, though it is to be 
hoped a careful scrutiny of the monument may detect it. 

From these discoveries there proceeds a most important 
historical consequence, and that is, that these archaic 
monarchs must have been, like the later Mempbite dynasty 
ones, rulers not only of Upper but also of Lower Egypt; 
for these Thinite dynasty kings could not possibly have 
held the Sinaitic district, and possessed mines there, of 
which these reliefs are probably records, unless they were 
lords of the Delta and the land of Goshen, as well as the 
Upper Nile valley. It has been noted, too, that one relief 
emphasises this by depicting the king with the crown ap- 
pertaining to the two (north and south) divisions of Egypt. 

The celebrated tablet possessed by Mr Macgregor,_ 
which indicated by its picture that Zosiri had conquered! 
over Asiatics, it is now seen, almost certainly refers, not to> 
his defeating them when invading Egypt, but to a victory 
over them beyond the isthmus of Suez. These facts were 
suggested previously by hieroglyphic texts on the ancient 
vases of Kha.sokhmou, found by Mr. Quibell at Hieraco- 
Dopolis, which refer to the "union of the two lands," and 
another text upon one, which speaks of " the year of war 
with the vanquished ones of the north." But the archaic 
inscriptions from Abydos had distinctly recorded that the 
kings, they appertain to, were Soutou Beiti, that is, chiefs 
of Upper and Lower Egypt; and were "lords of the vul- 
ture and the uraeus," which is a term of the same signific- 
ance. They also had the title Niboui, or "double lord," 
and they are called " Horus-Sit," which we know, under the 
fourth dynasty, conveyed the idea of sovereignty over all 
Egypt. 

Finally, the actual presence of Thinite dynasty Pharaohs- 
in Lower Egypt was proved by the finding at Sakkarah, 
two years ago, near Unas' pyramid, of many cylinder im- 
pressions of two of their kings in their Horus names: 
Ra-Dib and Hotpu Sokhmoui, whose titles are well-known 
upon the Abydos monuments, and whose reigns were at the 



lJ 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAW 




end of the second, or commencement of the third djnas^ 

There cannot be any doubt but that the tendency of aj. _ 
recent evidence is to show that as the researches of 
Egyptologists become more profound and efficient, the his- 
tory of ancient Egypt is gradually carried back into a 
higher antiquity. We now see that the very early dj'nasties 
■which it was the fashion to consider as petty principalities 
governing only a small area of the country, and conse- 
■quently possibly, in many cases, contemporary with each 
other, were in reality rulers over all Egypt as much as the 
great Pharaohs of later times. This tends to augment the 
ethnology of the Egyptian dynasties and prove the accu- 
racy of Manetho's list of monarcbs. 

And more than this, for it is evident that they were 
sufticiently prosperous at home, and therefore powerful 
abroad, to hold territory in the Sinaitic peninsula, much as 
descendants a thousand, and more, years later are known 
to have done. 

It is plain, that if, at some early period, the governing 
race in Egypt of later times was at its commencement of 
supremacy merely ruling over some small province of the 
land, and afterwards, as with Rome in Italy, gradually - 
acquired control of the whole country, that the records of^ 
this primitive and territorially restricted, series of princes 
have yet to be found, If ever they are so discovered they^ 
will be a line of chiefs, or kinglets anterior to Menes. 



FINDS IN EGYPT. 

BY F. LEGGE, 



|l!<lrHl from tli* Procetdino of th* Society af Biblical Arehaotocy.) 

The discoveries of M. Am^lineau and Prof. Petric a -•' 

Abydos. of M. de Morgan at Ncgadah, and of Mr, Quibell a' -*' 

Uicracon polls, have given us a knowledge of the earliest his ^^ 

lorical or Thinite dynasties, that to Egyptologists of the I»sr ^ 

^f jieneration would have seemed past hoping for. Thanks, how "^^ 

*ver, to the ransacking that these find-spots suffered even iir^ 

Pharaonic times, the identification of the monuments there dis- ^^ 

covered with any of the kings of the lists previously known tc:^ ■ 

I ua is by no means easy. Hence, from the outset, it has provecir^ 

I a bone of contention to the learned, and while M. Am^lineai:-^ - 

[ Hi first asserted that he had uncovered the tombs of Osiris^^'^ 

j Horus. and Set, M. Maspero wasequally positivethathisptinci >* - 

Pftl discoveries were not earlier than the third dynasty. Sine* ^^ 

then, the b.ittlc-ground has shifted; and Prof. Pctrie ha -^^ 

claimed that he can identify with the Abydos monuments no^'^" ' 

**nly the whole of Manetho's and Seti I.'s dynasty, but can als* ^^^ 

B'Ve the names of five kings who reigned before Menes. A i^' 

-against this, Dr. Scthe — who was really the first to show (h^^c 



THE OXYRHYNCHUS PAPYRI. 



I 



connection of any of the Abydos monuments with the first 
dynasty — will have none of Prof. Pctrie's pre-Menite kings, 
and rejects three out of eight of his first dynasty identifica- 
tions. Finally comes Dr- Naville, who in a series of brilliant 
and closely-reasoned articles, takes the theories of Prof. Pctrie 
and Dr. Sethe very much to pieces, and would leave only two 
of their identifications in a valid condition. As this contro- 
versy has hitherto been conducted in three different languages, 
has extended over some years, and has been complicated by 
the introduction of irrelevant issues, it is thought that an im- 
pa tial summary of the arguments may be of use to those still 
an.\ious to know how much these discoveries have really added 
our knowledge of the earliest Egyptian history. 



THE OXYRHYNCHUS PAPYRI. 
(extrXct from lord Cromer's report,) 



Whilst on the subject of antiquities, I venture to draw 
attention to the extraordinary historical interest of the volumes 
recently published by the Egypt Exploration Society. Many 
of the letters which have been unearthed and deciphered by 
the industry and learning of Messrs. Hunt and Grenfell, are 
almost the exact counterparts of those which used quite 
recently to be received in large numbers, and are still to a cer- 
tain extent received, at the British Agency. These volumes 
also abound with evidence to show that many of the abuses 
which, until very lately, existed in Egypt almost in their 
original form, are of very ancient date. For instance, plenti- 
ful allusions are made to the system of tax-farming which, it 
is well known, prevailed in Egypt, as elsewhere, from time im- 
memorial, and which appears everywhere to have given rise to 
abuses very similar in character. I think I am right in saying 
that, with the fishery reforms, almost the last vestige of this 
iniquitous and oppressive system will disappear. I note with 
some interest, that in the days of Domitian. the system — though 
without doubt equally oppressive to the taxpayers — seems to 
have been scarcely so lucrative to the tax-farmers as in those 
■of Abbas II. I have already mentioned that one association 
of farmers, who dealt with the fisheries, has recently been 
making a net annual profit of over .^30,000. On the other 
hand, I gather from a letter addressed by " Paniscus, Stratcgus 
of the Oxyrhynchite Nome, to Asclepiades, Basilico-gram- 
mateus of the same Nome," that certain taxes, the nature of 
wtiich is not specified, being put up to auction, the farmers 
who had previously held the concession, not only refused to 
bid, but "seemed likely to abscond," on the ground that they 
"tad incurred sufficient loss already." If the system were 
iwed to exist at all, I am not sure but that the practice 




S44 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

adoptrd in the first century, under which apparer 

went mainly into the government treasury and 

pockets of the middlemen, is not preferable to that which has 

ROW been abolished. 

Slavery is another case in point. The sale and purchase of 
slaves has, of course, long since ceased in Egypt, but it still 
exists in the mote remote and inaccessible portions of the 
Sudan. In my Sudan Report, I have alluded to the fact that, 
on the upper watcis of the Blue Nile, an able-bodied lad of 
15 years old can be purchased for ^I2. and I was curious to 
ascertain how this figure compared with the price in ancient 
times. The Oxyrhynchus Papyri abounds with statements 
which enable such a comparison to be made. 1 chose one of 
these by way of an example — the case of a woman, 35 years 
old, named Euphrosyne, who, in A. L). S6, was purchased from 
her mistress (Aloine, daughter of Komon, &c.). and freed by 
a certain Cha^remon. The price paid was " 10 drachmae of 
coined silver and 10 talents, j.coo drachmae of copper." 
Brugsch Bey was kind enough, at my request, to convert this 
sum into modern English cunency. He informs me that it is 
the equivalent oi ;/zj6f/. I must leave it to those who arc 
better acquainted than myself with the purchasing power of 
money in the first as compared to the twentieth century, to sajr 
whether, as 1 trust is the case, a slave really costs more on tf 
Abyssinian frontier in 1904 than was paid in Egypt in tl 
year S6. 

Many more instances similar in character might be adduced' 
from these interesting volumes, all pointing to the conclusion 
that when, of recent years, Egyptian reform was taken seri- 
ously in hand, :he reformers had, in many cases, to deal with 
practices which had existed, without undergoing any vei 
material change, for at least i.Soo years. 

ALL THE STATES AT THE WORLD'S FAIR. 

All the slates are to b« represented at the World's Fair. 
This means a great deal, a shining triumph for the Louisiana 
Purchase Exposition, and furnishes another illustration of the 
fact that this Exposition's completeness is the marvel of the 

Fiftyone states, territories and possessions of the United 
ktes have taken the steps necessary to participate in the 
Krtd's Fair on an important scale. But (wo states were still 
bide the fold at the last report, and in each of these was a 
"1-defined movement in favor of being represented at the 
Fair with 'buildings and e.\hibits. New Hampshire, the old 
home state, and Delaware are the states referred 10, In New 
Hampshire a fund for participation is being raised privately by 
patriotic citizens, so that in the event of legislative i ~ 

this commonwealth may be represented. 



say 

on 

1 



iiactio^^H 



ALL THE STATES AT THE WORLD'S FAIR. 



24 S 



The states and territories are expending over S7.000.000 in 
ir eSorts to show off to the best advantage at the Exposi- 
n. This is a million and a third more than was expended 
the Chicago Exposition by the states. In addition to this, 
ge cities in many states will have municipal exhibits, the 
ids for which are not included in these figures. The muni- 
al exhibit idea is entirely novel. From a number of the 
tes there will be prominent county exhibits provided by 
:cial appropriation of county funds. 

This City of the States presents a picture of surpassing 
tuty. Nature has done much to aid in the creation of the 
ture. Never before has any exposition been able lo grant 
:h advantageous siles for state buildings. The buildings are 
jated on a plateau about seventy-five feet higher than the 
el ground to the north upon which stand the main exhibit 
laces. There are hills and ravines here and there, enabling 
: landscapisis to lay out a most delightful pattern of roads 
d terraces and lawns. 

The smallest of the slate buildings that of Arizona, which 
inds near the southeastern entrance to the grounds. One of 
e largest is that of Missouri, from the dome of which it is 
id that perhaps the very finest view of the Exposition may 
enjoyed. This building is a palace in the Italian renaissance 
chitecture. built at a cost of £105,000. Near by is a repro- 
ction of the Cabildo at New Orleans, in which the Louisiana 
rchase transfer ceremonies took place — Louisiana's state 
ilding. Ohio has a clubhouse of highly ornate design, in the 
:hitecture of the French renaissance. Illinois is prominent 
:h a most pretentious structure, with wide verandas and a 
mmanding cupola. 

It is only possible here to hint at some of the interesting 
uctures. California, for instance, has reproduced in exact 
e the famous old La Rabida Mission. Connecticut presents 
cplica of the Sigourney residence at Hartford, home of the 
ctess Lydia Huntley Sigourney in her time. This building 
said to be the finest specimen of purely colonial architecture 
w standing. The New Kentucky Home, from the Blue 
ass State, is a handsome clubhouse that would make some of 
; mansions along Fifth avenue, New York city, look insignifi- 
il. Beauvoir. the quaint old house which Jefferson Davis 
oed and occupied for many years, is reproduced by Missis- 
ipi; its wide verandai or galleries give it a most inviting ap- 
arance. Washington's headquarters at Morristown, N. j., 
; reproduced by New jersey. Virginia contributes Monti- 
l!o, the home of Thomas Jefferson. 

The state of Washington contributes a structure of unique 
sign. It is called the Wigwam, five stories high, built of 
lod from Washington forests. The building is octagonal, 
tb gigantic diagonal limbers rising from the groumd and 
;etiDg in an apex ninety feet in the air, above which is built 



248 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

The importaDce of Asia Minor, also, to the student of Old Tesument bis- 
tory is manifest from the fact that the records of the Hittite tribes, wbo- 
exercised so strong an influence upon Palestine, in the days of the Pharaobs 
and at the time of the Eaodus, lie buried beneath its surface. This society 
has already published two papers, one of which contains photographs ^^ 
certain Hittite cuneiform tablets; also photographs of a great Hittite st^*^' 
discovered by Dr. Belck. 

Ephesus. — Of the Greek cities in Asia Minor, Ephesus and Mile-t: '^^ 
were in ancient times among the most important, and at these two plai 
the Austrians and Germans respectively are carrying on thorough excai 
tions. At Ephesus the excavations of the present season have not begi 
for the greater part of the ancient city lies so low that the water makes d' 
ging impossible until the summer is more advanced. In the last few yes 
the great theatre has been cleared, several detached monuments have be* 
investigated, the city walls and the water works have been studied, 
much of the business quarters has been laid bare. At Miletus the Germ: 
excavators, under Dr. Wiegand, are alreadv at work. The cxcavatio: 
were begun in 1900 and have entirely cleared the magnificent theatre, tT 
town house or bouleuterion. with its porpylaeum, large enclosed court, ere 
altar, and assembly hall, as well as several less important buildings. W01 
is now going on at The Lion's Harbor and at a large Roman bath. — Bibit 

The Babylonian Expedition.— The recent reports from Dr. Edgi 
J. Banks, the Field Director of the Expedition of the Exploration Fund 
the University of Chicago, are very satisfactory. The trouble with t1 
Arabs has been amicably arranged. In his latest report (No. 13) froi 
Bismya, dated March 25, Dr. Banks writes: "Since my last report the e: 
cavations have been carried on but four days on account of severe san* 
storms, religious feasts, trouble with an Arab sheikh, and my absence ir 
Kut-el-Amara to meet Mrs. Banks and Mr. Page. The finds, as you wiP 
see from the enclosed list, are of considerable interest. * 

" I am not yet certain as to the nature of this ruin (III) where we ar^ ^ 
now excavating. It may be a single palace, or a number of small house=^ ^ 
and narrow streets. If the latter be the case, the streets are about a metn 
wide, and along them are placed water jars. All of the tablets found ii 
this ruin are near the surface, and none have appeared lower than tw< 
meters. In one room excavations have been carried to the depth of twelvi 
meters, and even at that depth walls and fragments of pottery appeal 
The tablets, which seem to be found in groups of from ten to twenty, an 
all inscrib^d with the same ancient character of Sargon*s time, and the 
frequent occurrence of his name and the appearance of the name of Naranr~=i 
Sin lead me to suppose that Sargon and Naram Sin once lived here. I * 
seems best to continue the work at III. for the tablets are of unusua I 
antiquity, easy to excavate, and the other finds are of interest. 





ARCH.r.OLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN COSTA RICA* 

This book is valuable for several reasons. In the first place 
it is gotten up in a splendid form. It is printed upon heavy 
enameled paper with wide margins, and is full of illustrations; 
many pages containing several wood cuts; others having the 
character of plates, which are printed only upon one side of 
the paper, and are attended with a leaf which contains the 
description of the plate. The book itself is almost too thick 
and heavy for the convenience of the reader. The edition is 
limited and most of the copies will probably go to large libraries. 

The especial value of the book is that it contains a descrip- 
tion of a scries of articles which were discovered by the author, 
Mr. Hartmann, in a locality of which little has been known 
before, namely. Costa Rica, and describes articles which are 
somewhat novel. The majority of these articles were dis- 
covered in stone graves, al no great depth; some of them ad- 
joining the site of a mound temple, showing that there was a 
sense of sacredness about the temple, which led to the burial 
of the bodies with the relics. 

The most interesting discovery was made at Mercedes, 
which consisted of a large mound surrounded by slone walls, 
which the explorer, Mr. Hartmann, thinks was used as a plat- 
form on which to place a numbi^r of idols; a temple made of 
perishable material having been placed upon the foundation. 
The images, or idols, were found scattered about, the most of 
which were represented as having the same attitude and pre- 
senting the same characteristics. They were represented as 
nude, without any decoration, except a simple skull cap and a 
rope which was stretched over the shoulders of one of the 
idols and crossed the body in front. The hands were repre- 
sented as resting upon the hips, and the male and female organs 
were plainly depicted. One of the idols had in his left hand 
a small human head, resembling that which is held in the hand 
at Cosumalhuapa, though the idols were far inferior to those 
which were discovered by M. Habel at that place. There were 
many graves at Mercedes which were covered with heavy stone 
slabs, though the most of thern had been opened. The bottom 
consisted of several slabs, upon these were found flattened, 
globular, wide- mouthed bowls of coarse clay; ornaments formed 
by degenerate animal heads; the color was a reddish yellow. 
One vessel contained traces of charred corn; another con- 
tained a bluish green glass bead, called by some "millefiori," 



I 
I 




others called "aggr>-" beads, suggesting the idea that[^ 
rel <rs were deposited after the advent of tlie whites. IdcnB 
cal beads have been found in Indian graves in various parts — 
the United States. 

A vessel in imitation of a bird, and a celt of green slon 
smoothly polished; also a wide-moathed vessel, ornamcntc 
with a cord; a jar containing grotesque frog-like tigures ■ 

t relief on the outside; also a large, shallow, tripod bowl, wiH 
the legs in the shape oi conventionaliicd birds, were foun*- 
The most Jnteri-sting object was the head of a tapir, with llr- 







MERCSDKS. 



short ears, lar^ eyes. long teeth, and a trunk which projcctc<l 
in front of (he upper jaws, but did not extend below the lower 
jaw. This is a very ioteresliog relic, for the form of the trunk 
was in this case very different from those which have been 
found in Nicaragua. These trunks were car\-ed upon the sum- 
mils of the stele, and have been called by some, elephant's 
tninks and by others, the trunk of the tapir; but the differ- 
ence between the two is so marked as to leave in Nicai^ua 
an unceriaintv, though it makes a certainty in reference to 
those in Cost* Rica. 

Nor far from this large mound, which exideotly marked the 
site of a temple. «ere many caches in which were objects 



EDITORIAL. 



951 



which showed a considerable advancement in art; they con- 
sisted of ornaments, bowis, tripods, circular disc, egg-shaped 
vessels, and vessels with conventionalized birds' heads. 

Idols were found at Mercedes in such numbers and variety 
that the locality was called a stone cutter's working place, 
the ground was almost filled with discarded figures, mainly of 
idols or human images. The astonishing number of squatting 
figures called the Flute-blowing God, shows that this was a 
popular idol. Several flate-blowing idols were found in other 
localities, which confirms this supposition. 

It is a strange coincidence that idols hav; been found in 
South Africa with flutes in their hands and skull caps on their 
heads though these idols are dressed in costumes, which show 
much more advancement in the te.xtile arts. The flute was 
evidently a very favorite instrument among most of the rude 
ind was especially common in tliis region. Another 




FLUTR PLAY 



flute-playing idol was found at Chircot. This was in a silling 
posture, but had the same genera! features as those found at 
Mercedes, These images throw very little light upon the 
religious systems which prevailed, except that of idolatry, yet 
this is important in itself. 

There are several articles in the collection which resemble 
those which are dt-scribed by Mr. Holmes in his pamphlet. 
Among these we might mention Plate 56, Fig. 3, which repre- 
sents a jaguar shaped vase made of basalt lava; the length, 
24 5-fO centimeters. Plate 64. Fig. 2. is a fiat vessel, which is 
made up of three separate bowls, or vases, with wide mouths: 
each vessel supported by a single leg. but all joined together 
by solid bands or necks. Just such vessels were found by Mr. 
Clarence Moore in Western Florida, and are described by him 
in his monograph. Plate 50. Fig. 2, resembles one which is 
described by Mr. Holmes. It represents a circular table of 
basalt lava, the top somewhat concave and adorned with knobs, 
and animal heads arour.d the lower margin. 




^ At Williamsburg and at Highland Plains in ihc province c»- 
Cartago, many interesting articles were discovered. In th 
vicinity of the Santiago Station there were stones forming 
circles, with oblong graves within the circles. Here the article - 
consisted of globular bowls, clay vessels, ciav spoons, ston 
vessels in (he shape of animals; also a beautiful clay vas^ 




I 



SVMMETIItCAL AND FINELV COLORED CLA^ VASEi KTC, 

which was symmetrical in shape and finely colored. The Greek 
fret was an ornament on the vessel; the handle was in the 
shape of an animal with heavy elephantine legs, but with a 
head resembling that of a tapir. 

Many clay vessels were found in the burial ground at 
Chircot, the majority of them being supported by tripods and 




EDITORIAL 



2S3 



having intages of animal heads and human heads moulded 
upon the outer part, or upon the legs and handles. I'hese 
vessels were graceful in shape, and show a very considerable 
skill and laste in art. In fact, there are few regions in 
America which furnish better specimens of pottery than are 
found here. The ornaments are generally conventional, and 
yet accasionally one will find representations of animal figures, 
which arc very lifelike and show great imitative skill. One 
such vessel represents a jaguar; it was a rectangular bowl, the 
ground color, cream white, dccoratee in spots of black and red, 
in imitation of ihe animal's skin. Another large, shallow, 
tripod bowl is adorned on one side with an animal's head and 
fore feet in relief; the animal's 
head is especially attractive, 
as it brings out the very ex- 
pression of the animal's face. 

At Oroai a number of 
graves were opened and many 
interesting articles exhumed. 
Another flute-blowing image 
was discovered here. This 
was in a seated posture, as 
several at Chircot were. In 
this locality two sculptured 
heads were discovered which 
presented fine features, which 
were almost too good to be- 
long to the native races, yet 
both were covered with askuli 
<ap, and there is no good 
reason to regard them as post- 
Columbian. A stone vessel 
in the shape of a jaguar was 
also found at Orosi. which 
very closely resembles those 
which have been described by 
Mr. W. H. Holmes as some- 
what common in the province 
of Chiriqui, suggesting the 

idea that possibly the pattern may have been borrowed from 
that region. 

Interesting clay vessels were found, which had on their sur- 
faces an image which represented a cross as well as the human 
form; one of theie was found at Chircot, and the other at Orosi. 
It is not certain whether the symbol of the cross was intended, 
though it can be easily recognized by those who are familiar 
with the symbol. The human image consists only of two tri- 
angular jaws confined within the circles, the eyes near the 
circles, but the pointed chins coming near the center; the arms 
of the cross forming a band across the circle between the faces, 
but crescents fil! the spaces between the arms and face. 




PENSACOLA 



■54 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



There are many grotesque images in this collection, some 
representing bottles, with human arms extending from ihc side 
and human faces moulded upon the neck andupon the handles. 
These bottles, notwithstanding their grotesque shape, show 
very considerable skill in the art of imitation. A jaguar's 
head sculptured in fine-grained basalt, adorned with the human 
face on its lop, is one of the figures which show much skill of 
imitation, and especially skill in bringing out the expression oi 
the jaguar itself. 

Numerous circular stone enclosures were found at Orosi of 
a domiciliary character, and in many of ihem the inhabitants 
evidently had 
workshops for the 
m anu f ac t ure of 
weapons and tools 
out of the material 
which was abund- 
ant. The burial 
ground at Lashua- 
cas presented the 
most interesting 
finds. Here was a 
large hemispheri- 
cal tripod bowl of 
cream color, richly 
adorned in designs 
of red, black and 
yellow; the interior 
decoration shows 
highly convention- 
aimed animal fig- 
ures. The legs are 
grotesiiue heads 
representing the 
combination of the 
animal and human, 
iDJi. hKov LAKE NicAKAGi A and One of Ihc most 

interesting speci- 
mens, is one which represents a large hemispherical tripod 
bowl, with decorations representing conventional heads and 
several arms in gyrations- the legs are in the shapes of 
eagles' heads. This figure, which seemed to be gyrating, is 
certainly an interesting one. for it shows that there was a skilt 
among the artists which had grown up among the natives and 
was entirely original, and yet the fact that it suggests motion, 
is worthy of notice. 

The comparison of the articles which are described in the 
book with others which have been discovered in adjoining 
provinces — in Chiriqui and in Nicaragua— will be instructive. 
Mr. H. H. Bancroft says that Costa Rica, adjoining Chiriqui, 




AJk 



EDITORIAL. 



^55 



is the most southern of the states which belonged politically 
to North America; all the isthmus provinces forming a part of 
Colombia, a state of the Southern continent. 

Mr. E. G. Squicrs describes vessels of earthenware in 
locatities from Costa Rican graves; the most of which are 
characterised by the same peculiarities. The following is the 
classification made by Mr. Bancroft: (i) Mounds, sepulchcrs, 
and excavations; (2) figures cut on rocks or cliffs; (3) statues 
or idols of stone; (4) stone weapons, implements, and orna- 
ments; (5) pottery; (6) articles of metal. 

Statues and stones representing human beings, generally — 
in some cases. 
animals and 
monsters — have 
been described to 
the number of 
about sixty, con- 
stilutingthemost 
interesting class 
of Nicaraguan 
relics. The island 
of Zapatero has 
furnished some 
idols, which are 
found in connec- 
tion with stone ; 
heaps, lymg for 
the most part 
buried in thesand 
The idols are ' 
larger, and some 
more elaborate in 
workmansh ip, 
than those found 
elsewhere, and 
genital organs 
appear in many ,001. f 

of ihcm, indicat- 
ing the widespread phallic worship. One of these rcprL-sents a 
human head on an immense pedestal, and forms a cross, a 
symbol not uncommon here; another is a huge tiger, eight 
feet high, seated on a huge pedestal; a third represents an 
idol "of wild and benignant aspect"; a fourth represents a 
statue over twelve feet high. 

In reference to the entire collection, as represented by the 
plates in this book and the descriptions furnished by the author, 
we may say that it is quite unique, and yet resembles in many 
respects collections which have been gathered into the museum 
at Washington from the neighboring province of Chiriqui, and 
has been described by Mr. W. H. Holmes in his pamphlet en- 




3^ THE AMERIQUI AKTIQUAKIAN. 

titled " The Aacieot All of the Provtoccof Cbinqui.ColombU,' 
Aod publisbcd in the Sixth .\DnuzI Report of the Bureau of 
Kthnology. The bumaa figures are vtry similar: staiuctlei cf 
CDCo aod woofca in all degrees of claboratioD. Here, how- 
ever, there are human ^urcs ia gold which are eniitely difin- 
ent from aaylbing (oand by Mr. f^artman, though some of the 
figures represeBt Hute blowers. 

Mr. Holmes says a careful study of the earthenware of this 
provioce leads to the coDclusiou that (or America it represenlt 
3 vcty high stage of development, and ils history is, therefore, 
full of iDtcrcst lo the student of art. Its advanced develop- 
ment compared with other American products, is shown in 
the perfcclioD of its technique, in the high specialization of 
iorm, and the conventional use of a wide range of decoralivf 
motives. The graves of Chiriqui have yielded upwards of 
ten thousand pieces of pottery, and this chiefly from an irea 
of rot more than fifty miles square. These vessels constitute 
at least 90 per cent, of the known art of the ancient occupJoK 
of the province, and although not so eloquent of the past, )S 
are the pictured vases of Greece, they tell a story of art and of 
peoples, which without their aid would remain untold toihe 
end of time. 

.-\ unique vessel* which showed 3 peculiar conceit of ih( 
native artist, on the front and back resembles the human form 
with arms and legs finished in the round; the head or the moulh 
of the vessel represents two human faces looking in opposite 
directions: at the side, the vessel has the form of a duck, and 
the face and nose resemble somewhat the bill of a duck, the 
bise of the vessel forming a sort of nest. The vessel shows 
considerable ingenuity in its double pattern, and at the same 
time great imitative ^kill. 

Another image was found which had the head of a hear, the 
forehead being very low. the ears large, the eyes oval, but Ihf 
form, or the body, represented the human figure in a squatting 
position, with arms folded. The image reminds us of those 
which were discovered in the island of Pensacola, in Lakf 
Nicaragua. The Pensacola idols represented a tiger as ieated 
upon a shaft or pillar. Other idols at Pensicola were in the 
human shape, surmounted by massive crocodiles, but no suc'i 
idols have been found thus far in Costa Rica. This suggests 
the idea that Costa Rica and Nicaragua were settled bydiScf 
ent tribes, and that they had different systems of religion, oi 
at least different divinities which they worshiped, though idul' 
abounded in both regions. 




BOOK REVIEWS. 

Ekcavacionss en la Calle de Escalrrillas. Mexico: ig02. 4° pp. 

5S. Plates, folding plaas. and text tigures. 
ExPLORACtONEs DE Monte Alban, Mexico: 190Z. 4° pp. 37. Plates, 

ptins, and text cuts, 

ViSITA A LOS MONUMBNTOS AKQUEOLOGICOS DB " LA QUEMADA" 

Zacatecas. Mexico: IQ03. 4^ pp. 43 Plates, folding diagrams, 
Tlaloc ? Mexico: 1003. 4? pp. 19. Plates. 



RECENT WORKS ON MEXICAN ARCH>EOLOGV. 

Although there are several Mexicans, who are interested in Iheir 
nalioDal archeology, practically the onJy one who is publishing at present 
is Lcopoldo Batres. the official inspector and conservator of arcb3;ological 
monuments ot the Mexican Republic it is true that Dr. PeAaliel. at the 
Congress of Amencaniats in New York m igo2, presentrd an elaborate 

Spcr upon Ihe tiads in Escalerillas Street; if this has been printed we 
ve not yet seen iL He conimues to publish linguistic and hieroglyphic 
maltct of interest and importance, but this is not general archu-ology. 
Senor Chavero continues giving. oiil matter relative to ancient piclure- 
wriiiDg, and Dr. NicolAs Leon publishes summaiies and representations of 
what has been written regardirg one and another tribe of Mexican Indians. 
We mean no criticism of any or all of this work— it is valuable and im- 
potlanl — but it does not advance archaeology In general, and it is work of 
Ihe library and closet. And Mexico is so full of unknown, undescribed 
and uncollected material, that we ought to expect much field-work and 
many general studies. Bnt, in these directions Sefior Baires is almost the 
only worker. Four recent publications dealing with his work are before us 
for notice. All of them are printed by the Mexican government, and two 
of tbem were for presentation to the New York Congttss already men- 

In the first of these. ExLavaciones en la CalU dr las Eicttlerillas, we 
have a detailed account of the remarkable finds that were made in the course 
of sewerage operations in Mexico in the year 1900. Seflor Batres officially 
inspected these works, and as each object was found, note was made of its 
exact position; In manv cases, the objects were photographed as they lay. 
immediatelv after being uncovered The street of Escalerillas runs behind 
the present Cathedral, therefore close by the site of the famous great 
temple of the Aztecs. The excavations there brought to light an enormous 
Dumber of articles that had been In tbe temple, or that were in some way 
aisociated with it. Some of these things were of forms belore absolutely 
unknonrn: some were exceptionally finer examples of rare forms; many 
were, of course, extremely common things. Amon^ the objects of interest 
was part of a great altar, composed of sculptured stones cemented together; 
this was sculptured over its four sides with skull and cross-bone aecora- 
(ions, which still retained abundant traces of white, black, and light green 
<blue?) paml. This altar was preserved as found and, with much labor, 
was removed to the National Museum. A small part of a second altar of 
Ihe same kind was encountered: it was too incomplete to be transferred as 
it stood, but was of interest as showing, imbedded in its ori|;inal construe- 
tinn, two of the curious carved cylinders of stone, which are called 
XiuhmoipUli. '-tbe knotting of the years," and symboliie the cvcle of fifty- 
two years. A remarkable round lower ol stone, wiili turreted crown, was 



3$8 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

fincoTered, which memsared i.qo m. in diameter; at 0.34 m. in depth it pre- 
sented a sort of ilooncg of cement under which was found a mass of frag- 
ments of human bones. Among the many other articles were magnificent 
great ladle-censers of pottery, with long and hollow handles ending in ser- 
pent heads, bird-feet. etc.. and with the bowls decorated with elaborate 
polychrome designs; idols made of copal; great sacrificial knives of fiint; 
a cluster of objects of plain red pottery, representing the instruments of 
music and other objects used in dances, and intended probably for votive 
offerings (see my article XoUs on Mexican Musical Instruments ; Past and 
Present ; What was the Tecomapihaf American Antiquarian. 1903). These 
are but a few of the articles that were found. In his report Sef\or Batres 
does not attempt to describe the articles, nor to discuss their significance. 
He gives simply a day to-day record of the finds, with a great number of 
illustrations reproduced from photographs. Most of these illustrations ars 
groups of objects, the finds of a single day. A large diagram is presented 
at the close, which enables us to locate the exact spot where each object 
was found. Whatever work may hereafter be done upon this material, this 
simple record of the excavations will remain of the highest value and im- 
portance. 

Monte Albao is of surpassing interest and has been repeatedly visited 
and inadequately described. When, with Bandelier's description in hand, 
we first visited it in 1894, we were so impressed with its magnitude and 
significanci! that we planned a serious investigation. This we later, un- 
wisely, abandoned, because* Prof W H. Holmes, then at the Field Coluin- 
bian Museum, gave us the impression that his treatment of the place would 
be exhaustive. His panorama and description were valuable, but left 
almost as much of serious work to be done as before. No one did aught 
serious at Monte Albnn, until Seftor Batres made his Expioraciones de 
Monts Albi'in. In his report of that name we find a genera! description of 
the ruins, plans, and views of many of the sculptured slabs and other things 
of interest which he brought to light. One of the most valuable results of 
his work, is a new interest in the hieroglyphic system of the Zapotecs. In 
four plates Senor Batres brings together the characters, which occur in the 
sculptured s^ahs of Monte Alban; to these he adds a plate of characters 
from other localities in the Oaxaca Valley. This material is most interest- 
ing, and has heretofore been neglected. Its importance is further shown 
by the fact that, at the same Congress, where this work of Batres was pre- 
sented, Dr. Nicol.is Leon read a paper on practically the same subject. 

Since the New York Congress Senor Batres has printed two further 
contributions to Mexican archaeology. The first of these is Visita d ios 
Monumefitos an/neo/ot^itos dc ''La Quemada'' Zacatecas (Visit to the 
Archicological Monuments of "La Quemada " Zacatecas). These ruins, 
locally known as " Los edificios," are among the less known of the great 
Mexican monuments, although they are of very easy access. They lie not 
far from the town of Villa Nueva, about forty miles from the city of 
Zacatecas. A stage line running from Zacatecas to Villa Nueva, passses 
within sight of the ruins. In 1897, we spent several days at the locality. 
A natural ridge has been utilized and is practically covered with a mass of 
construction. Level platforms have been made, great curtains of masonry 
have been built up against the sides of the ridge, massive enclosure walls 
have been constructed; wails of buildings, altars, pyramids, an impressive 
"hall of columns." are grouped together upon the series of terraces thus 
secured and enclosed. From this rock ridge, with its elaborate system of 
constructions, well-built paved ways lead off in various directions. Senor 
Batres' visit was official, to arrange for the conservation of the ruins and to 
appoint a care taker for them. In his report, he presents a resum^ of the 
descriptions of other travelers, and then presents his own description, with 
a plan and many views. The mode of construction at ** La Quemada ** is 
quite unlike that of the more famous ruins in Southern Mexico. The ma- 
terial is a local rock, that breaks into thin slabs of no great size. Great 
columns constructed with such material are strikingly unlike the mono- 
lithic columns of Mitia, for example. Senor Batres attributes these con- 



^^^^^ BOOK REVIEWS. 

stnictions lo the Tarascans, ind cotnpares the aichitectural method with 
that of tbc j/acatai of the Lake Fatzcuaro region. He also continues his 
meihod oi comparison ol art representaliors with the existing physical 
type, and gives side by side pictures of two little clay figures and portraits 
of two Tarascan Indians. 

In Tlalocf. Senor Batres describes, more fully than has been done be- 
fore, the remarkable stone figure of Coatlinch.in, a place near Teicoco and 
not far from the City of Mexico. It is a monolith, measuring 7,0 metres in 
height, 4,ji metres in breadth, and 3.42 metres id thickness; the material is 
a hornblende aodesite,and Senor Becetril.in a recent article, estimates the 
Wright at li Ions. It is certainly the largest known Mexican idol, and is 
perhaps the largest on the Continent. The workmanship is crude and the 
figure has suffered some mutilation. It has long lain Hat upon its back 
aud, until Senor Batres' excavations, was embedded somewhat in the soil. 
Near the foot of the siaiue there w«re disinterred some bones of a child 
and some little pottery objects. In Volume I. of Mexlto li trav^i de los 
Si£/as. Senor Cbavero mentions this figure, idenlifying it as the Goddess 
Chalcbiutlicue. Batres combats this identification, and claims that the 
figure is TIaloc, the rain god. In support o( ibis view be cites the dress of 
the figure, the maxllatl, the fact ol the child's bones and toys, and certain 
passages in Torquemada. The maxllatl was an article of men's clothing, 
not of women's dress; children were the preferred sacrificial victims of 
TIaloc; Torquemada states distinctly Chat there long stood upon this hill a 
statue of TIaloc. The original statue was made of a white pumiceous 
stone; Nezahaulpilliinlli.the famous TeKCOCanruler,deierminecl to replace 
this by a new figure of dark material ; this figure was injured in transporta- 
tion and, shortly after being set up, was -damaged by lightning; assuming 
that the god thus showed his anger at the substitution, the dark figure was 
taken down and the while one replaced. Senor Batres believes that the 
great figure under consideration ii the discarded dark statue made by the 
Teicocan ruler. Frederick Starr. 

HiSTORV OF THE EXPEDITION Under the Command op Capt 

Lewis and Clark to the Sources of the Missoi;bi; Across the 
KoCKv Mountain, Down the Columbia River to the Pacific in 
i8ci4'i8o6, A reprint of the edition of 1X14, lo which all the members 
of the expedition contributed. In three volumes, with maps. New 
York: A. S. Barnes it Co,; I90J. 

The appearance of this book is timely, inasmuch as the great Exposi- 
tion at St. Louis is in celebration of the event which opened up to American 
settlement all the region which was traversed by this company. The first 
»olume contains a portrait of Capt. Merriwelher Lewis; the second volume, 
a portrait of W. P. Clark. 

One IS surprised in reading the book to find that the region, notw'-"- 
standmg the fact that It had been so long under the control of the Spar 
and ihe French, was in realitv what might be called a hostile territory. The 
inhabitants were not as hostile as were the tribes which De Soto visited on 
bis expedition in 1530, 274 years previous. It will be remembered that 
Ue Solo and his army of courliers passed over the Southeastern pait of Ihe 
same region and came in view of the vast plains, which stretch from the 
Missouri to the West. The description given of Ihe region by these later 
explorers, shows that it had the same general character as had that through 
which De Soto traversed, though the Rocky Mountains intervened between 
Ihe headwaters of these rivers and those that flow into the Pacific Ocean. 
It is surprising how much ignorance there was of the country, and especi- 
ally the courses of the streams which flowed through it. The party were 
obliged lo separate into bands, and the different bands explore the various 
branches, and then take the branch which seemed to be the longest and the 

t important. The same was true to a certain extent of the branches of 
rivers beyond the mountains, to which the names of Lewis and Clark 

e given and which they still bear. 




a6o THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Anocber matter of sarprise is that the tribes which occupied the region 
were so hostile to ooe another. It would seem t*^t every little baikd of 
Indians, when orertaken br the party of explorers expected lo be slangh- 
tered, eren before thej knew that ther were friendly whites. In fact, one 
great effort of Capt. Lewis was to convince the Indians that he was a white 
man. for they feared the Indians more than the white men. The tribes 
which then occupied the re^on differed from those which occnpied the 
Mississipoi Valley, and belonged to a different stock. We call them now 
the Apaches, the Arapahoes. the Shoshooes, with a sprinkling of Cheyenncs, 
the Ricarees. and other tnbes of the Soathwest. 

It woald seem that the social condition of these western Indians was 
even then much lower than was that of the Sioox and others of the same 
stock. The Miimetarees and the Asuniboines were less savage than those 
farther West, but with the Assiniboines drunkenness was very commoo: the 
women and children were permitted to share in the excesses. Among odier 
tribes farther West there was a very low sute of morals among the women; 
a state which has continued up to the present date and has marked itself 
conspicuously in the mythology which still prevails. This, in faict.is so 
vulgar and debased in its conceptions that a modest person hesitates to 
read the myths wh'^n printed, as some of them have been recently. This 
is strange, for the mythology of some of the Eastern tribes, such as the 
Chippewas, Dakotas and Iroquois, is ver)- interesting and free from im- 
moralities. The same it true of the Western tribes, such as the Navajoei^ 
and especially the Pueblo tribes, such as the Zunis. 

There is in the narrative a vast amount of detail which does not especi* 
interest the reader, and yet it brings out the character and condition of die 
country, the nature of their habitations, and to a certain extent the materiel 
resources. It is. of course, not like the expeditions which have beea 
recently sent over the same region, in which men who are specialists ta 
geolog>'. in botany, and in the various departments of natural science are 
put under the direction of some leader, and each makes the report in his 
own department. It does not contain the evidence of military training. 
and yet it is a fair report for the period and is instructive. There is no 
spirit of prophecy manifest, for the general impression at the time was that 
it was a God forsaken country; and yet. when read by those who have known 
the wonderful development and resources of the region, a feeling anses* 
" Why was not I there to take possession and enjoy the advantagei 
benefit of its rise in value. 



EDITORIAL. 



»5> 



which showed a considerable advancement in art; they con- 
sisted of ornaments, bowls, tripods, circular disc=, egg-shaped 
vessels, and vessels with conventionalized birds' heads. 

Idols were found at Mercedes in such numbers and variety 
that the locality was called a stone cutter's working place, 
the ground was almost filled with discarded figures, mainly of 
idols or human images. The astonishing number of squatting 
figures called the Flute-blowing God, shows that this was a 
popular idol. Several fi'.ite- blowing idols were found in other 
localities, which confirms this supposition. 

It is a strange coincidence that idols have been found in 
South Africa with flutes in their hands and skull caps on Iheir 
heads though these idols are dressed in costumes, which show 
much more advancement in the textile arts. The flute was 
evidently a very favorite instrument among most of the rude 
pecially common in this rpgion. Another 



flute-playing idol was fuund at Chircot. This was in a si 
posture, but had the same general features as those found sX 
Mercedes. These images throw very little light upon the 
religious systems which prevailed, except that of idolatry, yet 
this is important in itself. 

There are several articles in the collection which resemble 
[ho^ic which are described by Mr. Holmes in his pamphlet. 
Among these we might mention Plate 56, Fig. 3, which repre- 
sents a jaguar shaped vase made of basalt lava; the length, 
24 5-10 centimeters- Plate 64, Fig. 2, is a flat vessel, which is 
made up of three separate bowls, or vases, with wide mouths; 
each vessel supported by a single leg. but all joined together 
by solid bands or necks. Just such vessels were found by Mr. 
Clarence Moore in Western Florida, and are described by him 
in his monograph. Plate ;o, Fig, 2, resembles one which is 
described by Mr. Holmes. It represents a circular table of 
basalt lava, the top somewhat concave and adorned with knobs, 
and animal heads around the lower margin. 



I 




Vol. XXVI. September and October, 1904. 



No. 5 



^_ THE NAVAHO ORIGIN LEGEND. 

^^m BV C. STANILAND WAKE. 

^^A large portion of the ejctrernely interesting work by Dr. 
Washington Matthews, published for the American Folk-Lore 
Society in 1897. on the legends of the Navaho, is occupied by 
the "Origin Legend" of this people. This story appears to 
be deserving of careful study, as it is typically American in 
its contents, not only containing many incidents as parts of a 
connected whole, which among other American tribes are le- 
laled as separate stories, but giving a detailed account ot ibu 
emergence from underground of the Den^ (Navaho), which is 
the usual explanation of the appearance of men on the earth 
current among the Indian tribes. 

The Navaho legend asserts that First Man and First Woman 
were created by four mysterious beings, who were the gods ot 
the Mirage People, frou two ears of corn; the white ear being 
changed into a man and the yellow ear into a woman. The 
event took place in the fourth world, which had already, how- 
ever, other inhabitants. The legend actually begins with a 
desciiption of the first world which was inhabited by twelve 
"people." which were different kinds of insects, including ants, 
dragon flics, beetles and locusts. Animals already existed, 
however, in the four oceans by which the world was sur- 
rounded, as we are told that the chief of the people in the 
eastern ocean was TiShoItsodi, the Water God, who is probably 
the water monster of other Indian legends; that Blue Heron 
was chief of the western ocean; Frog of that in the south, and 
White Mountain Thunder chief of the ocean in the north. 
The insect people quarrelled among themselves, owiny to 
many of the women committing adultery, one people with an- 
other, which led lo their expulsion from the woild by the Water 
God. He sends a flood which compels them to fly upwards. 
White they were circling round, a blue swallow thrust its head 
through a hole and called to them. They entered the hole and 
came out on the surface of the second world, which was in- 
habited by the Swallow People. The newcomers sent two 



THt AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

9 to explore the Uad. They lound it extended a 
travel, aad was boonded by 4 great cliff that arose from i 
ahgrss vImmc bolloa tkey could MX see It appeared to be 
withoBt iafcabttuitc asd had oo vegetation, and was baie, level 
g iuoad. Soo*. iM>«eTCT. the Swalkiw Peop e visited them and 
they all arrced to be Erieads. as thotigh members of one tribe. 
Tbcy fivra happity topthcr for tweotv three davs, when odc 
of the Locvst INraplc look liberties vitb the wile of the Swal 
lov chief. Theivvpo* thev were told by the Swallows to leave, 
aad they soared np to tbe sky. ^here they saw the face of 
NUtsa. the Wwd. kwkioe >t them- He directed them to a 
place io tbe sowch wherv there was a hole, through which they 
p«s»cd aad eatcred the third world This world was yellow 
aad was barrea. Its ooljr imhabiUuits were the Grasshopper 
People, who lived la the novad oa tbe banks of a great river 
vhich dowed to the-cast. The Grasshoppers made friends with 
tbe peo^ froB the lascct Wofftd.biit after tweniy-three days 
the Utter were cowpcUed tgum to travel upwards, owing to the 
niscoadoct of oot of them. Before they reached the sky they 
sav Ute head of Red \MBd stack out, and he told them to dy 
mtax. Tbey foaad there a pa<<age twisted like the tendril of 
a viae, which Red Wind had otade. Tbey flew up through 
the phssage to the fourth world, accompanied by lour grass- 
hoppers, — white, btae. yellow aad black ones, such as are now 
ia the Navaho cooatry. They ^w four jreat snow-covered 
peaks, ooe ia each of the loar dtrectioos. but tberc was no 
si(B of life. Thc>' seat coonen east, south, west and north 
KtKcessivety, and tbose seat to the aorth reported that they 
had founJ a race of straage mea, wbo had treated them very 
kiadly. They lircd ia bouses aad cultivated Selds by means 
of in^atioa. aad tbey cut tbcir hair square in front. Some of 
the Kisaai ^Pueblos), as this people were called, visited them 
acxt day aad ted tbeia to a strcaoa of red water, and showed 
ibea a square raft oa whkh tbey could cross. The raft was 
■lade of foar lofs — a while piae, a blue spruce, a yellow pine 
aad a bU^ sprace. Tbey cr ossed the stream and went to the 
Kisiai. who (ave tbeia com aad p«npkins to eat. They then 
held a cottacil aad decided to aiead their manners for the 
future, la the aututta they were visited l>v four mysterious 
betnes. White Body. Blue Body. Yellow Body and Black Body. 
who afterwards, as already meaiioaed. made First Man and 
First Womaa. The cods made sifos to them, which Black 
Body iatetpreted as BKaaiec that they waated to make more 
people, ia tom like Ihcauelves aad aot like the new comers, 
who had bodies like thein, but the teeth, feet and claws of 
beasts aad insects. Twelve days past and the pxls came again 
briagiac two sacred buckskias aad two cars of com — one yel- 
low, oae while.— each covered at the ead completely with 
pains. The fvUtowiag is the account of the creatioa of Fie 
Man aad Fiist Womaa, as (ivea by the kfead : 




THE NAVAHO ORIGIN LEGEND. 



167 



"The gods laid one buckskin on the ground with the head 
to the west; on this they placed the two ears of corn, with 
their tips to the east, and over the com they spread the ulher 
buckskin, with its head to the east; under the white ear ihey 
put the ftather of a white eagle, under (he yellow ear the 
leather of a yellow eagle. Then they told the people to stand 
at a distance and allow the wind to enter. The whiti; wind 
blew from the east, and the yellow wind blew fiom the west, 
between ihe skins. While the wind was blowing, tight of the 
Wirage People came and walked around the objects on the 
ground four times, and as they walked the eagle feathers, 
whose tips piotruded from between the buckskins, were se< n 
Bo move. When the Mirage People had finished their walk, 
Ihe upper buckskin was lifted, — the ears of corn had disap- 
peared; a man and a woman lay there in their stead."* 

The gods then directed the people to make an enclosure of 
brushwood for Ihe man anS woman, who entered it and were 
told to live togeiher as husband and wife. At the end of four 
days twins were born, who are described as being hermaphro- 
dites. In four days more a boy and a girl were born, and they 
attained maturity in four d«ys and became husband and wife. 
Three other pairs were born to First Man and First Woman, 
making five in all. The gods took the parents, and afterwards 
the children, to the mountain in the east and kept them four 
days, during which time they appear to have been taught how 
to pray for rain and abundant crops, and also the secrets of 
witchcraft. On their return the brothers and sisters separated 
and afterwards they married Mirage People. The women soon 
had many descendants, as thty bore children rapidly, and their 
offspring attained maturity quickly. They made a great farm, 
with a dam and irrigating ditch, which they set the two herma- 
phrodites to watch. When First Man and First Woman, with 
their descendants, had lived in the fourth world eight years, 
they saw the earth and the sky move towards each other and, 
as they touched, the coyote and the badger sprang out of the 
earth. The coyote came to the camp and skulked around, but 
the badger went into the hole that led to the lower world. 
Sometime afterwards First Man had a quarrel with his wile, 
and he determined to take all the men with him over the 
stream, leaving the women alone. They remained separated 
four years, and then the men had more food than they could 
eat and the women were starving. Then, at the entreaty o( the 
women, First Man sent for the women, who were all conveyed 
across the stream, except a woman and her two daughters. 
Tnese three attempted to swim across in the dark. The mother 
succeeded, but the daughters disappeared. They had been 
stolen by the Water God, but the gods White Body and Blue 
Body, with a man and a woman, went down into the water with 



3M THE AMEHICAM AKTIQUARIAM. 

(be aid bl two bowls, to the house of Ti«boltsodi. wfacfc they 
found the giiU and also two children of his own. They had been 
followed by Cojotc. and when t'ley wcoi awa)' with the girls 
he carried ofl Ti^hollsodi's two children under his rube. Next 
day the pcup^c were surpriied to sec animals coming into the 
camp for refuge, and four days afterwards a great flood came 
rolling rapidly toward them. Fioai this they were saved by 
means of a t;f eat reed, grown from thirty-two reeds planted by 
the »oo of a stranger, who appeared catryiog under his robe 
earth from the !(cven sacred mountains. The people entered 
the reed by an opening which was then closed u]'. The teed 
grew until it reached the sky. in which a hole was made by a 
locust, after Great Hawk had failed. When Locust returned 
he related that he found himself on a little island, in the centre 
ot a lake, where he was approached by four grebes of different 
colors, one from each of the four directions, who told him that 
they owned the world, but he should have half of it. if he could 
do as they did. They passed an arrow of black wind through 
their hearts, and on Locust doing the same they went away. 
The hole made by Locust was two small, however, and Badger 
was sent up to make it larger. Then First Man and First 
Woman, followed by the others, climbed up through the hole to 
the surface of the fifth world. Here they found themselves od 
an island, which they nearly drained by the breaking of holes in 
the surrounding cliffs by means of stones thrown by Blue Body. 
It is remarked that when they reached the mainland they sought 
to divine their fate. Some one threw a hide scraper into the 
water, saying, "If it sinks, we perish; if it floats, we live." It 
filiated and the people rejoiced. But Coyote picked up a stone 
and threw it into the water, saying, " If it sinks, we perish: if 
it floats, we live." It sank and they were very angry with him. 
He replied and said : " If we all live, and continue to increase 
as we have done, the earth will soon be too small to hold us, 
and there will be no room for the cornfields. It is better that 
each of us should live but a time on this earth and then leave 
and make room for our children." This condemnation of man 
to death is accredited to Coyote, or his equivalent, in the 
legends of many Indian tribes. Meanwhile the flood the peo- 
ple had escaped from was rising through the hole by which 
they had reached the fifth world, and First Man, suspecting 
that there was something wrong about Coyote, directed him 
to be searched. His robe was torn from his shoulders and out 
of it dropped the young of the Water God, looking like buffalo 
calves,* spotted all over in various colors. These were at once 
thrown into the hole and inwnediately the waters subsided. 

Some of the Kisani had accompanied the people from the 
fourth world, and they had brought with them an ear of corn 
for seed. This they agreed to divide with the others, but when 



^V THE NAVAHO ORIGIN LEGEND. 269 

it was broken in two, Coyote seized the tip end of the ear and 
ran away with it. The Kisani kept the butt, and this Is why 
the Pueblo have belter crops of corn than the Navaho. Then 
the Kisani moved away, as they were alarmed at the threats 
of the other people. Hence the Pueblo and the Navaho now 
live apart. 

The legend now relates various e.\lraordinary incidents. 
The seven sacred mountains of the pn-sent Navaho countiy 
were made with earth brought from the similar mountains in 
the fourth world. The sun and the moon were made, and the 
former was given in charge to the man who had planted the 
great cane or reed in the fourth world, the moon being placed 
in charge of an old man, who had there joined them- The peo- 
ple then began to travel, and at four places where they camped 
were born monsters, which were " the fruit of the transgressions 
o( the women in the fourth world when they separated from 
the men." It is said that other monsters were born on the 
march, while others "sprang from the blood which had been 
shed during the birth of the first monsters, and all these grew 
up to become enemies and destroyers of the people," In their 
wandering the people came to Kuntytl (Hroad House) in the 
Chaco Canon, The erection of this building is ascribed to a 
gambling god named Nohoiipi. who had descended among the 
Pueblo and had as a talisman a piece of turquoise. He won 
first their property, then their women and children, and then 
some of the men, to whom he said he would give them part of 
Iheir property back, if they would build him a great house. 
This was being built when the Navaho came to the place. The 
gambler afterwards won other Pueblo, with their property, and 
the great house was soon finished. The other gods were an- 
noyed with Nohoiipi, because he had refused to give to the 
sun two great shells which he had won from the Pueblo people. 
They determined (o ruin him through the agency of another 
gambler to be aided by themselves. First, however, they 
wished to know how Nohoiipi felt about refusing to part with 
the shells, and they sent Darkness to find out Darkness went 
to the gambler's room, entered his body and searched his mind, 
and en his return reported that he was sorry for what he had 
done. This was confirmed by Wind, who doubted whether 
Darkness had spoken the truth. Nevertheless various indoor 
and outdoor games were played, in all of which Nohoiipi was 
defeated by his opponent, by the connivance of the gods and 
the aid of various animals. The gambler lost himself, his wives 
and all his possessions. The two great shells were given to the 
sun, and when Nohoiipi cursed his enemies, the Victor, who 
had a magic bow, called the Bow of Darkness, ordered him to 
stand on the string and he was shot up into the sky as far as the 
house of the god who carries the moon, and who. says Dr. 
Matthews is supposed to be the same as the God of the Ameri- 
cans. The Moon god made a new people and sent him down 



173 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

to Old Mexico, vfacre be ruled over them and became the God] 
of tiK Mrnons- 

■ The kce«d telates a number of adventures of Mai. the] 
cojrotc. who had atSTned a Nav«ho woman, some of which will I 
be ncogwi x ed as being widely spread amo g the Western'! 
Indiaai; under dightly tar>tng forms. The following sloryf 
nay be enrcB u a specimen : Coyote goes to %-isit Porcupine.'l 
vbo nibbed his nose with a piece of bark until the blood!! 
flowed OTcr it. He then pat it on the fire, and when" 
roasted, it was a piece of meat Coyote enjoyed this much 
and invited Porcupine to make a return visit. He did so. and 
Coyote tried to imitate him in obtaining roast meat. Coyote 
fails, howrrer. and Porcupine has to go home hungry' 

We are now introduced to the two Navaho war gods. They 
arj the sons of the two divine sisters. Estsantlebi and Yolkai 
Kstsai. At the end of four days tLey are the size of ordinar>' 
bo>-s of twel\-e years of age. They contend with the gods 
wfao created them in a race, and arc the winners. Tbeir 
mothers make them bows and arrows, with which they shoot 
at the birds which act as spies for the andye or alien gods. 
Soon these monsters come towards the woman's lodge, but the 
two boys go off on a " holy trail." They come to the abode 
of Spider Woman, who gives them charms against four 
placet of danger — the rocks that crush the traveller, the reeds 
that cut bin to pieces, the cave cactuses that tear him to pieces, 
the boiling sands that overwDelm him. They pass through 
these dangers in safety, and after passing by its animal and 
other sentinels reach the house of the Sun-god. Tsohanoai. 
The Sun-god refuses to accept them as his children until he 
has put them to the test. ttTien satisfied with them, he asks 
what they want. They reply that tfaey want his help to destroy 
the imdrt. who have eaten nearly all the people. He then gives 
them clothing of pes (iron or knives), lightning and other 
arrows, and a great stone knife club. Tsohanabi takes them to 
the edge of the world and. renewing his promises of aid, shools 
th;m down on a streak of lightning lo the top of Mi. San Mateo. 
The brothers first encounter the giant Yeitso. whom, after a 
terrible conflict, they slay. The wielder of the lightnir.g arrows 
is Naytfn/'iani. the elder brother,* ho now goes alone in search 
of Teelg^t. agreat four footed beast vith horns like those ofa 
deer. The gopher. Nasizi. bores four tunnels for the hero to hide 
in. and a shaft from one of them to the monster's heart. Nay- 
^n^Mani sees the heart beating, and discharges at it his arrows 
of chain lightning, running at once into another tunnel. The 
min«er rtps up each tunnel in successinn, but falls dead at the 
last o:>e. .After staving other tt/vfm.the brothers again lisit 
Tsohanoii, who i" now called the *■ bearer of the sun." to a«k 
his fur'her aid. Tht< he promises on condition that they will 
send E-tsan.i'Iehi to the west lo make a home for him. Nay- ^ 
^nczgani proni ses. and they receive various things to laketo^^ 



her. The hero gives the things to his mother, and then goes 
again in search of the destroyers of his kind. He finds them 
changed, however, and his career as a slayer of the alien gods 
comes to an end. His mother accompanies the Sun god to the 
west, taking with her many animals he made for her. With the 
concluding portion of the legend, which treats of the growth 
of the Navaho Nation, we have here noconcern.but it is full of 
interest and throws much light on the wanderings of the people. 



A MAGICAL AND MEDICAL PAPYRUS OK THE 
THIRD CENTURY.- 

BV JOSEPH OFFORD. 

All Students of the history of medicine in early times are 
aware how intimately it was associated with magic and Sham- 
anistic practices. A valuable specimen of this mingling of 
these, happily now widely severed practices, is afforded by the 
" Demotic Magical Papyrus" just published by Messrs. F. L. 
Griffith and Herbert Thompson. 

Unfortunately for science, whilst containing a multiplicity 
of magic, it presents but a modicum of medicine, and that of a 
very inferior description, but such as it is, it deserves mention. 
Though by its new editors entitled a " Demotic Papyrus " some 
short passages of the manuscript are written in Hieratic and 
Greek. Some portions of it appear to be translated from the 
Greek, whilst others are from an Egyptian dialect more ancient 
than the early Coptic info which the greater part of the treat- 
ise is rendered. 

The papyrus dates from the third century A. D. and is in 
comparatively good preservation; a matter for congratulation, 
for our present knowledge of Demotic script is so slight, that 
unless a manuscript engrossed in it is very clear, it could not 
be correctly interpreted. Its twenty-nine chapters are almost 
all devoted to incantations and invocations of the most puerile 
character; the majority of them having errotic objects in view. 
Divination has its place mostly by means of lamps and vessels, 
frequently aided by a human medium, generally a boy. Some 
divinations are by the sun and moon, but this work does not 
provide any stellar or astrological formulas. Various incanta- 
tions arc for curing the bites of poisonous reptiles and dogs. 
There is a short list of plant names, useful to botanists and 
philologists, as giving the Coptic and, therefore, probably the 
ancient Egyptian titles of certain species, in contact with their 
Greek name.i. 

The first items of a medical nature occur in Chapter xxiv. 
among recipes for "drugging a person." The ingredients 



r< Thampis 



: Maciol FapTma af LondoB and Liydso," (dilid lir F- L. Griffith ai 
I. Hew Ysrk ud Lsndon: F. Ktvil ft Cc. 



-fji THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

rcccommended for the purpose are scammony (convolvulitl 
root), one drachm; opium, one drachm; mixed with miltc. A 
second formula advises, maodragord root, one ounce; liquorice, 
one ounce; hyoscyamus (henbane), one ounce; 
ounce; to be given in wine. The author apparently appre- 
hended possible error in selecting the ivy leaves, and there- 
fore appends a botanical description of the plant, saying: " Ivy, 
it grows in gardens; its leaf is divided into three lobes, like a 
vine leaf; its leaf is one palm in measurement; its blossom 
like silver," another says "gold." This last itatcmcnt may 
have arisen from the identification terms having been derived 
from some very ancient Egyptian dociunent, (or m antitfuity 
in Egypt, silver was called " white gold." 

A recipe in some supplementary columns of writing upon 
the rfcfo of the papyrus, is a cure recommended for the gout. 
Its contents are: onf measure of Euphorbia; a half measure of 
pepper; one measure of " pyrelhrum," probably an umbellifer, 
viz., burning to the taste; one measure of adarces, and one of 
sulphur; to be pounded together, mixed with wine and oil. and 
appti.-d to the painful region of the body. Some of these in* 
gredicnts occur in a prescription for gout preserved in a medi- 
cal work by the famous physician, Alexander of Trallcs; viz., 
spurge, pepper, pyrethrum and adarces. Dioscorides also 
mentions pyrethrum. 

Column 2 of the reverse side contains remedies for a 
sprained foot; one consisting of garlic, frankincense and oil, 
macerated together, applied as an ointment, and then the foot 
to be bathed with cold water. 

Some paragraphs are occupied with diseases of the eyes, but 
the remedies proposed do not appear likely to have been bene- 
ficial. One. after advising various verbal spells, prescribes a 
collyrium of oil. salt and nasturtium seed. The Coptic word 
for this last, in its Sahidic dialect form, is identical with the 
'■Kardamon" of Dio«corides. 

In all this class of papyri the names of the demons, deities, 
or spirits invoked are eenerally the merest gibberish, but oni 
this document — Krishkigal— is evidently the ancient Babylon- 
ian Persephone; Erish-ki-gal. a nime recently recovered by 
meais of the cuneiform inscriptions, but which it is now ap- 
parent was known in Greco-Roman-Egypt. The goddess ia 
alluded to in the fragmentary mythological cuneiform tablet 
f 'nnd at Tel elAmarna. and so may have been familiarized in 
Egypt in the time of Amenophis III. and IV. 



A 



THE TEN TEMPLES OF ABYDOS. 



, KLINDERS PETRIE, 
led in the Egyptian Gi»ll> 



he first time, the whole history of one of the great 
national sites of Egypt has been opened before us; dating 
from the beginninfj of the kingdom, and ending with almost 
the last of its native kings,— from Mena about 4700 B. C, to 
Nekht-hor-heb, 370 B.C. History is here l^iid out before us in 
strata, from which the past can be read as we hft ttiem away 
one from another. 

In order to read, however, one must know the alphabet of 
the subject; and that has only lately been learjit, from the pot- 
tery, the flints, the beads, which show. each. Ihe age to which 
they belong. Excavation on a site with a long history is mere 
destruction if each stratum is not read and interpreied intel- 
ligibly as it is opened; unfortunately, this has never been done 
before on any such site. On the earliest sacred site of Abydos, 
the first capital of Egypt, temples had been piled one on the 
ruins of another, until ten ages of building ^^ood stacked to- 
gether in about twenty feet depth of ruins. Ea:h temple had 
become partly ruined afler a few centuries, and then at last 
was pulled down, leaving a foot or two of Ihe walls and founda- 
tions; and a new temple of a different plan was then erected 
on the ground. America is not old enough (or this to be done 
even once; but London stands on a mound of over twenty feet 
of ruins, from which its past will some day be read as we now 
read that of Egypt. 

The earlier temples were all of mud brick. Stone first ap- 
pears for the doorways of the fourth temple, that of the sixth 
dynasty, about ^400 B. C. Sculptured stone walls are found of 
the ele\enth dynasty; and wails were wholly of slone in the 
twelfth dynasty, about 3700 B. C, and in the later temples. 
These buildings of the well known historic times are, how- 
ever, of much less importance to us than the earlier temples, 
which yield us fresh views of the civilization to which they 
belong. 

About the middle of the second dynasty, say, 4300 B. C. a 
clearance of the temple offering was made, and hundreds of 
small objects more or less injured were thrown into a disused 
chamber, which served as a rubbish-hole and was lati r buried 
under fifteen feet of ruins. The contents of this chamber were 
old and disregarded at that lime; and as the first king has been 
found close by at the same level, it seems that we should refer 
(h? contents of this limbo to the first dynasty. 



274 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. ^^B 

The Vase of Mena. ^^| 

Groping in ihe thick brown organic mud of this rubblS^* 
hole, 1 lifted out one by one the priceless examples of glazid 
work and ivory of this earliest age of great art^an art oi 
which we had never understood the excellence from the traces 
hitherto known. The ivory was sadly totted, and could 
scarcely be lifted, without dropping asunder in flakes. So 
'vhen I ty,u.ii-] that I had touched a piece, it was left, until at 
last a patch of ground was left where several pieces of ivory 
had been observed- Cutting deep around this, I detached the 
whole block of sixty or eighty pounds of earth, and had it re- 
moved on a tray to my storeroom. There it dried gradually 
for two or three weeks; and then with a camel'shiir paint- 
brush I began to gently dissect it and trace the ivory figures. 
Not a single piece was broken or spoilt by thus working it out. 
and noble figures of lions, a bear, a large ape, and several boys 
came gradually to light. Suddenly a patterned robe and then 
a marvellous face appeared in the dust, and there came forth 
from his six-ihoiisand-year sleep one of the finest portrait 
figures that has ever been seen. A single photograph can 
give but little idea of the subtlety of the face and the expres- 
sion, which changes with every fresh light in which it is seen. 

The Ckoun of UprEB KnpVT. 

Wearing the crown of Upper Egypt and clad in his thick 
embroidered robe, this old king, wily yet feeble with the weight 
of years, stands for the diplomacy and statecraft of the oldest 
civilized kingdom that we know. No later artist of Egypt, no 
Roman portrait-maker, no Renaissance Italian, has outdone 
the truth and expression of this oldest royal portrait, coming 
from the first dynasty of Egypt. Ih-: simplicity and lack of 
pretension are almost baffiing; it does not claim any idealism 
or beauty, it scarcely seems to intend to be so fine or powerful, 
and yet it appeals equally to the first artists and to the ordinary 
man. No other object has so generally compelled the admira- 
tion of visitors in any of our annual exhibitions. 

That this did not stand alone as a stray phenomenon is seen 
by the group of other ivories, of which we may instance a very 
small one of a woman, which shows the same character of work 
in simplicity and directness, and in the perfectly natural ex- 
pression of the statuettes. Among other figures discovered, 
those of boys, standing, walking, and seated, are all true and 
unconventional in form, and show firm and accurate modelling. 
A little bear seated on the ground and couchant lions and a 
mastiff show that animals were studied and understood as well 
as men. We must row grant in future that a complete art had 
arisen nearly seven thousand years ago. and that it has seldom 
been equalled and hardly ever surpassed in the five fresh births 
of art which have occupied the course of human history. 





THE TEN TEMPLES OF ABYDOS. 



275 



Nor was the skill of technical work neglected. The abund- 
ance of vases and bowls, cut from the hardest and most refrac- 
tory materials, — granite, syenite, poiphyry. rock-crystal, and 
obsidian,— which we found in the royal tombs of this age, show 
a taste and ability (or fine malcial and work which was never 
equalled in later times. And the mastery of glazing provided 
large vases with the royal name inlaid. This wa.s part of a 
gloi>iilar vase, eight inches wide, of green glaze, with the royal 
hawk name Inlaid with purple glaze. Here we have the prop- 
erty of the oldest king in the world, whose name is preserved 
by history— M-na, the first king of the first dynasty of Egypt. 
This vase must have been handled by this figurehead of ail 
monarchy, and almost certainly was dedicated by him in the 
primitive temple of the capital. 

Strange, indeed, it is to look on so personal a link, and to 
think that the whole sum of what we know as human experi- 
ence has come and gone since this was last worthily handled; 
the pyramids. Thothmes, Ramescs, the Greek, the Roman, the 
Northmen, all were unthought of when this last saw the light. 

The use of colored glazes was also carried out on a great 
scale for wall decoration. Thick tiles, a foot high and half as 
wide, were made, fully glazed in green on both sides, and pro- 
vided with a deep keying on the back, and grooves to hold 
thick copper wires to thread them together, so that one could 
not be lifted without moving those on either side. The surface 
was ribbed to represent papyrus stems; and there was a band 
of tiles of papyrus heads along the top of the stem tiles. This 
glazed tiling was also made in a great variety of sizes and pat- 
terns — some ribbed, some fluted, some plain, some inlaid with 
inscriptions, and others copied from matwork design. Another 
light on the architecture is given by the glazed vases copied 
from the lotus capitals, showing that such a form was already 
in use. The complete capital is of green glaze with purple 
spots, the same polychrome as the Mena vase, and probably 
from the same factory. The form of the top, with a slightly 
raised disk, is evidently copied from the architectural detail of 
a capital. The other work in glazed pottery is of great variety. 
Figures of men, women and childr. n. captives and servants; 
figures of baboons innumerable, of various quadrupeds and 
birds; model vases and shrines; toggles for fastening the dress, 
and beads of many forms— all subjects came alike to the ready 
hand of this early potter. He modelled the forms in the silic- 
eous paste, and then covered them with the hard coal of glaze 
which binds the material firmly together, and which has in 
manv pieces even kept its color after thousands of years in wet 
ground. 

An entirely new class of glaze work is the tile with relief 
designs and inscriptions. One whole tile I picked out of the 
mud, which has a figure of an aboriginal negro chief, and his 
name and locality. This proves of particular interest, as he 



•i 



1 



27* THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

belonged to the ■■ fortress of the .\nu." a people with whom the 
early Egyptians were continually at war, and the day of whose 
destruction was a yearly festival down to late times. From 
this tile we now know that the Anu were the negro races of the 
southern border, which the Egyptians had such difficulty in 
holding back. The Sudan question is as old as the beginning 
of history. 

In another chamber we found a large number of sacred 
figures, which had been carefully put away when thought too 
rude for the devotions of more civilized times. Few, if any, 
were as late in style as those which I had taken out of the mud 
in the great rubbish-pit: and judging from that, and their 
resemblance to figures found some years ago at Hieraki.npolis, 
it is probable that ihtse are as early or earlier than the age of 
Mena, and so touch the close of the prehistoric time. The 
most curious, and probably the oldest, objects here were some 
very elementary figures of baboons, and other purely natural 
■ tones. The figures of baboons are very slightly worked. Rude 
lumps of limestone had been picked up, having a slight re- 
semblance to the form of the animal; and then a little pound- 
ing away of the surface had improved them into an utimistaW- 
able connection, helped in some cases by a few scores si:r2ped 
with a flint. The first of these is only pounded, like an Easter 
Island idol; the second is the most improved, by scratching a 
mouth and eyes; the third and fifth have only a broad groove 
hammered to divide the head from the body and mark the 
snout. And we see in the fourth a natural flint selected for its 
resemblance to thi: baboon, and slightly improved by knock- 
ing off a few awkward projections; there can be ifo question 
as to the intenlion of placing this flint with the other element- 
ary figures; they were all alike kept in honor of the sacred 
cynocephalus baboon. But with these figures, which are seven 
or eight inches high, there were two much larger Hints, two or 
three feet high. They were set upright in the chamber, and 
had evidently been selected, out on the desert, a mile or more 
away, and brought into the temple, associated with the very 
primitive baboon figures, and placed on end with them. All 
this attention to them is only explained by looking at their re- 
semblance to animal forms. In the first one we see a quad- 
ruped on its hind legs, the head having been lost at the break 
on the top. In the second stone there is the baboon torm 
tolerably evident. 

We cannot but see here the primitive fetish stones, such as 
the Papuan will now collect and reverence. Thus wc touch 
the Egyptian behind all art and civili^.ation. back in the time 
when the siray resemblances of nature caught the attention of 
the mind as yet untrained to disentangle the connections of 
things. That mind is by no means now extinct; the coat of 
arms of cardinals are quoted in telegrams as forecasts of their 
probable papacy, in accord with a supposed prophecy, and the 



THE TEN TEMPLES OF ABVDOS. 377 

name of a ship is supposed to link its fate with that of its 
namesake. Most men pick up their fetish stones by Ihe way- 
side in life, and imagine conneciions which strike thei: fancy. 
But these stones, found far below the polished statues of an 
Egyptian temple, open our eyes to the source of sculpture. 
We see here that man did not first sit down with a block of 
stone and determine to carve some figure, but he picked up 
some strange weird form that seemed as if it must be some- 
thing else than all the rest of the stones around; he treasured 
it, venerated it. improved it so as to piously help nature; and 
little by little he became bolder, until the finished statue did 
not even need the least resemblance of the block to start wi'h. 
I envy the glow of the first man who saw that any stone would 
do. and that he need not be the servant of nature and only 
adopt what was indicated to him. Such are the glimpses of 
the rise of art which these stones give us; but these were by no 
means the earliest examples of such notions, as prehistoric 
man in Egypt had long existcii. though here we touch a sur- 
vival of the primitive ideas in these rude untouched fetish 
stones set up in the first temple of Abydos. 

The Camei- in Egyptian Historv. 
In the same chamber with these early sculptures we found 
also a modelled pottery head of a camel. So far this animal 
was unknown in early times in Egypt. Not a single figure of 
or allusion to the camel is found there before Greek times, 
although familiar in Syria from the days of Abraham. Here 
we find that at least in the first dynasty the camel was kncwn 
to the Egyptians. 

A similar throw-back in history occurs when we find a piece 
of iron in a bundle of copper tools of the si.xth dynasty, or 
about 3400 B C. Hitherto not a scrap of iron had been found 
which could be certainly dated before looo B. C. in Egypt, and 
it was not in familiar use till Greek times. But we see now that 
in some way the Egyptians got a bit of iron, apparently only 
worked into a wedge, two or three thousand years earlier. 

It is not only the history of Egypt that we recover deep 
down in its ruins, but also that of Europe, Some years ago 1 
found foreign pottery in the prehistoric time, and the earliest 
stage of painted Greek pottery in the royal tombs of the first 
dynasty. Now, of the same age. we find in the temple a whole 
class of black pottery which is not Egyptian and is clearly 
Greek in its forms. I took a piece of it in my pocket to Crete; 
and there, on the terrace of Dr. Evans' house at Knossos. I 
picked up the exact parallel to it. undistinguishable in color, 
material, and polish. Unfortunately the Cretan pieces are much 
broken, and the forms have not been yet restored for compari- 
son with the amphora and bottle which I found; but more than 
a dozen black bowls from the temple are like those of Crete. 
Ai to the age, this pottery belongs to the late neolithic period 



27S THE AMERICAS ANTIQUARIAN. 

in Crete, which must be of 40GO B. C. or earlier, in good accord 
with the EgyptiaD date of about 4500 B. C. for this class of 
potter>'. It IS ouly by thus connecting the early dawn of 
Europe with the m^re complete history of Egypt that we can 
recover more of our own past, and trace surely the various 
steps by which our present civilization has been built up. To 
understand the action of the present time, to grasp the mean- 
ing of the tendencies of its religion, its politics, and its life, 
without knowing the stages by which it has grown, is as in- 
effective as to look at geography without the geology which 
has determined it and which controls it. Just as .the strata be- 
low preserve to geography of the past, and have formed and 
will yet regulate m future the surroundings of mankind, so the 
past civilizations have formed the social present, and will yet 
control the future of man. 

The Persoxalitv of Cheops. 

We come down now from this beginning of the high civil- 
ization, which :$ only now brought before us, and some eight 
centuries later we meet, at 4000 B. C, a name which has never 
fallen into obl'vion. but has kept its place as that of one of the 
leading n^rures ot histor\-. By the pen of Herodotus the per- 
sonality ot Cheops has passed over from the wreck of Egypt- 
ian literature, sate and sound into the Greek world, and so to 
our days. The character of this great and masterful ruler is the 
oldest that has been handed down in the memory of every 
generation since his time. In all ages to offend a priesthood 
IS a sure title to infamy; and whether it be Cheops or Manasseh, 
Leo the Iconoclast or Henry 11., the result is the same. In this 
light must we read the histor>* of Cheops, who is said to have 
** abandoned himself to every kind of depravity. He closed 
all the temples, forbade the Egyptians to ofifer sacrifices, and 
ordered them aK to work tor himself,^' as Herodotus records. 
Manetho likewise says that "he was supercilious to the gods," 
but adds, siranvjely. th.it he "wrote the sacred book which is 
greatly valued by :hc K^jxpfans." This apparent contradic- 
tion shows how we are to read the abuse which precedes it. Of 
the depravity there is no evidence beyond a confiscation of 
relic ious endowments; ot hi< real religion there is the pr of 
that he edited or vvrvUe a work which was valued in ages after- 
wards, and the temples ot Hubasiis. of Koptos, and of Denderah, 
all show ium as a reii^^ious founder. Hitherto we have had no 
portrait to enable us to ;udge the man as an acquaintance, to 
estimate his abiiities. his ideas, and his nature; and he has re- 
mained an en'vjma which no historian has fully understood. 

At last we can '.00k into his character face to face. In one 
of the storerooms ot the temple ot Abydos many figures had 
been thrown a^^ide. probably in the sixth dynasty. Those of 
wood had entirely decayed, and mere films of painted stucco 
were left in the earth; but one little figure of ivory about three 



THE TEN TEMPLES OF ABYDOS. 



979 



etc. 



ed its original polish almost 
r had broken the head off, and brough 
ind found thi 



JBches high had preaer\ 

The workmen in digging had broken tue head ot 
me the figure headless. When I cleaned it, i 
HoTus name of Cheops (Khufu) upon the throne, it was evi- 
dent thdt no trouble was too great to recover the head the 
only portrait of one ot the greatest kings. 1 anxiously in- 
quired of all the hoys where they had thrown the earth, and 
marked out the possible limits of our search; and then began 
a sifting of every morsel, in order to find a piece no bigger 
than the lip of the little finger. A whole day the boys sifted, 
and day after day they went on lifting a great bank of earth; 
one week passed, and then another; but at the end of ihe third 
week of incessant sifting the precious face wa» found in perfect 
state, and the next day the back of Ihe head completed the 
figure, and Khufu once more sat in all his dignity before us. 

Wc can now study the nature of this great monarch. The 
Arst thing that strikes us is the enormous driving-power of the 
man, the ruling nature which it seems impossible to resist, the 
cjctermination which is above all constraint and all opposition. 
-As far as force of will goes, the strongest characters in history 
^*ould look pliable in this presence. Wher we analyze it we 
^ee the ideality of the upper part of the face^the far look in 
the eyes, and the high cheek-bone; the expression of concep- 
tion and construction and the attaining of great ends. And 
■^when wc look below, lo the mouth and jaw, we feel the terrific 
f orcewhich carried forward his ideals, Ihe a!l-compellLng power 
to which no man could say nay. There is no face quite parallel 
to this in all the portraits we know, ^Egyptian, Greek, Roman 
«3r modern- 

Face to Face With Khufo. 
Face to face with Khufu we can better understand the record 
t;hat we have of his acts. No doubt such a man, with great ideals 
■^nd unlimited stiength of will, did many unpleasants things; 
but Ihe sight of such a face wipes away any such notion of per- 
gonal baseness or evil nature. ' And this reform and economic 
devolution was the step toward the resumption of ihe wealth 
*3f the country by the state. The king was all in all to the 
X^ptians — lawgiver, administrator, organizer, general, high 
finest; and after putting an end to the wasteful service uf the 
*'eligion, "he made them all work for himself." The name of 
Khufu still remains at some of the great lemples, at a vast 
quarry of alabaster, on the rocks of Sinai, and above all at the 
<jreal Pyramid of Ghizeh, which is the greatest mass of ma- 
sonry and contains some uf the most accurate work that has 
wer been put togelher by mortal man. Such were the triumph- 
ant results of this ruling will, ot which we now see the living 



L 



expression set before i 

The accounts of the reigi 
aoffle writers as improbable. 



of Khufu have been slighted by 
But this year an entire confirma- 



Oo THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

tion was found in excavating the temples at Abydos. At the 
bottooi of all was a temple of the first dynasty : above that an- 
other temple of the second dynasty; and then at the fourth 
dynasty there was a blank in the ruins, with no great walls or 
building, but om\y a hearth of vegetable ashes, among which 
were hundreds of little pottery offerings, without a single bone 
of a sacrifice. Here we actually saw before us the abolition of 
the temple and the sacrifices, and the substitution of the clay 
models of no value, in place of the costly offerings which had 
sustained the priesthood. After thai the lystem of temples 
revived, and increased in cost and grandeur to the end of the 
history. But the political economy of Khufu stood revealed, 
and Herodotus was vindicated. 

Rows of pits are sunk, and the earth thrown out. until build- 
ings are reached, and then each wall is followed and traced, 
and one structure below another is cleared, until all the past 
history of the scries o( temples is exposed, and every fragment 
has been transferred to the plans which permanently secure 
the fads. 

More than four thousand measurements and a thousand 
levels were taken to unravel the history of these temples of 
Abydos; and everyday 1 was cutting sections of the earth with 
trowel and knife to trace in the mud soil the course of the 
mud-brick walls. The pillager merely in search of antiquities 
would find only two or three do^en inscribed stones and much 
worthless pottery; but for the historian and arehxologist there 
was the history of the land for four thousand years in that 
twenty feet of ruins. I have to thank England and America 
equally for enabling these discoveries to be carried on by 
means of the Egyptian Exploration Fund, in the publication 
of which the detailed results are giv 





PERSONAL DIVINITIES AND NATURE POWERS IN 
^^ AMERICA. 

^^H BV STEPHEN D. PEET, VH. IJ. 

^^"We have passed in review the different aboriginal religions 
of America, and come at last to the one that seems the most 
important of all, viz.; the worship of the personal divinities 
in combination with the nature powers. We use the double 
title because some have doubled whether the element ot per- 
sonality was strong enough to be used alone, and because ihe 
worship of the Nature powers is so prominent, and especially 
be cause of the analogies which may be drawn between the 
personal gods of this continent and those which are worshiped 
in Oriental lands. We claim, however, that there was a com- 
bination of the two in the religious cult of the civilized tribes, 
and that persona! gods were worshiped, and eclipsed the wor- 
ship of the Nature powers so as to be distinguished from them, 
eacn one being worshiped by religious riles which were dis- 
tinctive. The objects of worship arranged according to their 
order of progress are as follows: i, Animal totems; 2, the Na 
ture powers, including the sun, moon, stars, and the points of 
the compass, and the elements, such as fire, water, earth and air; 
3, the "Culture heroes," these were partly natural and partly 
supernatural, but were worshiped as the heroes or chief divinilit-s 
of certain tribes; 4. the Lawgivers, these were represented as 
human persons, who appeared and gave laws and established 
governments, but disappeared; 5, last of all were the personal 
gods. These received personal names and were worshiped as 
personal gods, though they had different spheres of action. 
Chief among them were the God of Peace, the God of War, 
the God of Death, also the goddesses of maternity and the 
gods and goddesses that represented the elements. 

It is well known that the gods of the Greeks, Romans, 
Babylonians, and Assyrians were primarily the representatives 
of the Nature powers, but personal attributes were ascribed to 
them. We think of them only as personal gods and fail to 
draw the analogy. Such is the case with the older gods of 
the Greeks, for Uranus is always represented as dwelling 
above in the skies and as the supreme ruler of the universe, 
and in him we recognize the natural and personal attributes. 
The same is the case with the Egyptian divinities of which 
Isis and Osiris were the chief. Isis was called the mother 
goddess, for she was the mother of Horus. but many of the 
Egyptian divinities were only personifications of the Nature 

fQwers. This is shown by the story of Osiris. He was slain by 
ypho, his body was divided into twelve parts and thrown into 



1 



aSi THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. « 

the sea, but was gathered and hidden in the tree at Biblos. 
The parts symbolized the twelve months of the year, and the 
overflow of the Nile, and the hiding in the tree symbolized the 
part which water has in the growth of the tree. The most 
suggestive feature in the story is that Isis finally discovers the 
eleven parts of Osiris, and puts them together and restores 
them to life, only one part being left off; thus symbolizing the 
resurrection of nature in the spring time. In like manner the 
gods of the Babylonians are seen to represent the Nature 
powers, though they are so personified that we forget this, and 
are interested only in their personal character and career. There 
were, to be sure, in Babylonia, three periods which were so 
near together, that the worship of the Nature powers and the 
personal divinities and the human characters, called the Law- 
Givers, became blended, and yet if we study them more care- 
fully we find they represent three classes, and belong to three 
distinct periods. 

In America ■.ve find the distinctions between the personal 
gods, the Lawgivers, and the Nature powers so dim that we fail j 

to separate them, and cither regard them all as personifications — 

of nature, or consider ihem as personal divinities ruling over — j 
all, and at limes think of them only as human teachers, strange =^ 
visitors from a foreign land, though the moral character of the — — 
divinities tall far below that of other Law-givers and h-jman ^r~] 
founders of religion. 

In the Scriptures the case is different, for from the firstz^V t 
chapter to the last, the personality of God is brought out clearly, ": 
and there is no reference whatever to the Nature powers, nor^K-r 
even the blending of the Law-giver with the personal divinity — ^. 
This constitutes the difference between the Scriptures and a\F J 
pagan writings, for notwithstanding that there are many sacre&3^ 
books among the pagans, we do not fail to recognize ii — ^^ 
them the operations of nature as the basis of all. Ther^^BC 
were many great masters who came in and ;stablished system— — '^' 
which became the standards of thought, but these were evi- 
dently htmtan, and had a human history, though some of then: ^ 
have been deified, so that we regard them as the divinities oWC=ri 
the people, and yet they were only human beings. Some hav^^S 
Stumbled over these, and ha^e imagined Iha* the personal god^S^ 
of America were actual persons who came to America from^J 
Kome other land, and they point out the fact that the chief go(«^ 
it represented as white, having long hair, and wearing a robe j 
mtuming that he was some unknown visitor from Orienta"W 

Now the resemblance between the personal gods of America 
mill those of the Eastern lands, is a sufficient explanation of 
this These gods all seem to be supernatural beings, but they 
w#it> «lw.iy» connected with the natural objects which were- 
known to the members of the particular tribes, and the worship 
J( jhcit, was purely local. Still there was such a resemblance 



r 



PERSONAL DIVINITIES AND NATURE POWERS. 



283 



between them that they seem to have been not merely the 
heroes of one tribe, but of entire stocks, and so they help us 
to understand aboriginal history. 

It is true that their personal history and character did 
bridge the distance which would naturally exist between a 
rude untrained mind and a spiritual unseen being, but there 
was an unconscious process that led the people to ascribe to 
them a supernatural character, for some of them are repre- 
sented as having a high moral character and having established 
the religious system which prevailed. 

Wc arc to notice also that there were many Culture heroes 

in America, who represented the powers of nature, but could 

not have been human beings and certainly not persons known 

10 history. These Cul- 






lire heroes were wor- 
shiped by the wild 
tribes and they were 
regarded as human, 
aiid yet they always 
had supernatural pow- 
ers and accomplished 
wonderful things. 

There is one re- 
markable fact about 
the Culture heroes, 
viz., they belonged to 
different stoc ks of 
Indians; the Algon- 
quins having one, the 
Iroquois another, the 
Dakotas another, the 
Pueblo tribes, the 
mountain tribes of the 
far West, and the tribes 
DiFFEKHNT cuuTUKE H8HOES * situstcd iu the North- 

wcst, still others. 
It appears that the Culture heroes had become so scattered 
by the wanderings of certain tribes, that we find thent lar apart 
from one another and in scenes and surroundingsto which they 
gradually became accustomed; thus proving that they be- 
longed to stocks as well as tribes, and were carried by the 
tribes to their new habitations. This is an important point, 
for it throws light on the migrations of the Indian tribes, and 
confirms the position which the linguists have taken. To 
illustrate: the Algonquins were scattered from the coast of 
Maine to the south shore of Hudson's Bay, and from there to 
the region far west where the Blackfeet are found. They were 



'iifif«^#^^^^ 



ttr- 



T1» fiini'line Iu>u>ii(i Ib>UG«id,ih> Notlb Sil.. 

HuuGoili thsGrih, ihaWarCod; Ihtiiilh, the Sun Gai 



M'i 



1; At fomth, (h> 



284 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



also scattered along the Atlantic coast as far south as the 
Potomac; their habitat being mainly on both sides of the chain 
of the Great Lakes and north of the Ohio River, but stretch- 
ing down the Atlantic coast. The study of myths and sym- 
bols, as well as the language, has confirmed this. 

The Iroquois are supposed to have belonged to the same 
stock as the Cherokees, and perhaps with the same stock as the 
Dakotas; the study of the language giving rise to this theoiy. 
The study of the myths and the symbols of these different 
tribes rather confirms the opinion of tue lingui^its, though the 
change of the scenery and sunoundings have modified their 
mythology. The same is true of the tribes which were situa- 
ted on the Pacific coast. Some of the linguists think that the 
tribes of the Southwest came down from the Northwest and 
settled in the central provinces, but developed Iheir mythology 
from the same sources, and claim ttiat their languages have 
many features in common. We find, however, that the tribes 
on the Northwest coast have a mythology entirely different 
from that of the Southwest, as the divinities which they wor- 
shipped were the raven, bear, whale, and other animals which 
abound in the forests of the North, but the divinities of the 
civilized tribes were personal beings, and were represented by 
Idols which were covered with a great variety of symbols. 

This conformity of religion to the surroundings is also illus- 
trated in the case of the tribes ot the deep interior, for here 
the mythology is drawn from the mount >ins and rocks, the 
Navajues having one set of divinities, the Pueblos another -et, 
Ihi.' wild tribes ot the region another set, thus showing that 
tribal lines, as well as scenery, had effect upon the native 
religions. 

We have given this general review ol the systems which 
prevailed throughout the continent, in order to bring out the 
fact that certain tribes worshipped personal divinities and at 
the same time deified the Nature powers, and made their 
attributes resemble those of the personal gods. We may say. 
that the several classes were constantly interchanged. The attri- 
butes of the one were ascribed to th.t of another, the attri- 
butes of nature and those of the personal gods being so closely 
associated that they were both worshiped. 

Another element seems, moreover, lo have been introduced 
into the mythology of these civilized tribes of the Southwest, 
viz., the worship ol kings and queens, for their statues are every- 
where present. These statues are decorated with all the orna- 
ments and jewels and garments and emblems of wealth and 
power, so that we recognize them as designed to represent 
tings and queens and persons of royalty, as well as priests and 
officers clothed with authority. On the other hand, the god* 
which personified the Nature powers were generally plainer in 
their dress and appearance, and they had symbols about them 
which were suggestive of all the elements and show plainly 



PERSONAL DIVINITIES AND NATURE POWERS. 



their sphere of activity, three classes of symbols being mani- 
fest- It will be acknowledged that there were different periods 
End different nations and races representcl by these personal 
gods, the earliest period having been ascribed to the Mayas, 
but the later to the Nahuas. In thii. respect they also resem- 
bled the gods ot the Babylonians, Accadians, and Assyrians, 
for these belonged: some to an early, and some lo a later date. 
The earliest were ascribed to the Accadians. We also recog- 
nize in these personal gods the lines o( ethnic descent, as we 
do in the gods of the East, especially the gods of the Greeks 
and the Romans, and to a degree the early Babylonians, The 
main difference is that they are surrounded by scenery and 
circumstances which are peculiar to this continent, and not 
found in the Old World. The belief in the personal divinities 
as distinguished from the animal, was the result of progress, 
and appeared only among those nations which had reached a 
certain degrc- of civilizaiion. 

We have, then, in these regions of the Southwest a picture of 
the rise of .society, the development of religion, and the growth 
of mythology, which is very important. The worship of the 
personal gods along with the Nature powers resembles that 
which prevailed in the regions of the East, though the isolation 
of the continent brought about a different order of symbols, a 
different class of myths, and different divinities, and yet very 
striking resemblances may be recognized between all these sys- 
tems and those found in the Eastern continent. It is true that 
the ethnography of the East isolated the gods of Baby- 
lonians from those of the Greeks, as welt as the gods of the 
Greeks, from those of the Egyptians, as the desert on one side 
and the sea upon the other presented barriers over which 
religion did not pass until late in history- 
It will be noticed that physical barriers often separate religi- 
ous systems as much as they do language or tribal history, but 
with theso-calledcivilizedtribeslanguzge, history and territorial 
proximity, all serve to give similarity to their divinities, but 
serve to make great differences between them and the divinities 
of the wild tribes. There were, to be sure, time periods 
which separated the personal gods of the Mayas from those of 
the Nahuas. but there came in between the two, certain other 
periods, especially the Toltec period, which so bridged the 
space that the mythology became .strangely blended. The pre- 
Toltec period embraced the semi-mythic traditions of the early 
civilization and brings before us one class of divinities. The 
Toltec period brings before us another class; the Chicimec stili 
another; the Aztec period another. The first extends to the 
sixth century, the second lo the eleventh century, the third to 
the fifteenth century, and the fourth, the Aztec, to the time of 
the Discovery. 

In the pre-Toltec period, vague traditions point to the 
4 cradle of American civilization, and to the Volanic empire. In 




f 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the Toiler period the personal divinities and 
sembled one another in many respects. In the 
the statues of divinities, as well as the architecture of the 
temples and the symbols contained in the palaces, show that 
the worship of personal gods was very closely associated with 
that of the Nature powers, as the religion of the period evi- 
dently gave direction to art and architecture, as well as to the 
literature which prevailed. There was a change in the geo- 
graphical location as time went on, for the mythology and the 
ritual moved northward. This appears from the study of tbi 
statues and glyphs. 

Statues are lound in great numbers in the Umasintla Valle^H 
These statues are covered with a great number of symbols,' 
but present a great variety of drarpery and show that the kings 
and priests lived amid great magnificence and the gods par- 
took of their power. 

In the Aztec period the divinities also partook of the magj 
nificence which prevailed, but their personal and moral t' 
acter were very much changed, for the warlike traits of the pet^ 
pie had been developed by long conflict, and the 
came to the front; the Fair God, Quetzallcoail. having been sup 
planted by Tczcatlipoca. the War God. We find that the 
lory of the two nations has been so well preserved in the cal-] 
endar stones and in the codices, as well as in the sacred books,; 
that 've may compare it with those which prevailed in the fsr] 
East. We are sure that the personal divinities were designed'! 
to represent the Nature powers, for there are so many images 
which are covered with symbols which can be interpreted in 
no other way. Of course it is not expected tha; the same 
zodiacal system existed in America, as that which prevailed in 
the far Kast. Yet, in so far as the ordinary Nature powers could 
be represented, they served as the drapery and ornament of 
the personal gods and divinities which were worshiped. These 
ornaments and symbols varied according to the period to 
which they belong, as the Aztec period was marked by one 
class of symbols, the Toltec by another; and the oldest of MM 
belong to the time of the ancient Maya civilization. The™ 
monuments of the north are different from those of the south, 
not only because they are newer and belong to a later period, 
but because they belong to a different system and have a dif- 
ferent class of symbols. It is true that we find certain symbols 
scattered throughout the whole region, such as the serpent, the 
cross, the tree, and the suastika; but there are other symbols, 
such as the manitou face, the hook, the Toltec eye. and the 
crouching Hon or tiger, which are not found in the symbols of 
the Aztecs. Still the Maya system was quite in accord with 
that of the Nahuas, as we find symbols resembling those of 
the Mayas in Palenque. Ococingo. and Copan, for these cities 
were devoted to the worship of Ihe gods during the Toltec 
period, and perhaps before that time. 




^ PERSONAL DIVINITIES AND NATURE POWERS. 287 

It was through the position of the kings and fear of the 
priests, that so much of the wealth of the comnion people was 
concentrated in Chc cities. Yet there were outside the cities, 
upon the summit of the mountains, images of coyotes and of a 
colossal figure of a winged beast, which watched over the 
fountains from which the water flowed, which supplied the city. 
This shows that there was still remaining something of the 
old animal worship which prevailed among the wild tribes. 
These were artificial, but there were natural objects which sym- 
bolized the same thought. The tradition, however, which most 
impressed the people was about Quezatlcoatl, who came from 
the East wearing a cross upon his robe. This, however, is only 
one account, for another tradition represents him as having the 
character and appearance of a monk or a priest, and yel his 
influence became very great over the people. 

There is a tradition, also, of three white men having ap- 
peared in the midst of the civilization which had prevailed, 
and who introduced systems of religion resembling those of 
the East, but bo far as the evidence of the monuments go, it 
Wfould seem that the priests ha-i great power and that the kings 
lived in great magnificence. There is a discrepancy between 
these two accounts, for the priests generally wore different 
garments from the kings, and were devoted to their office, and 
their style of dress was quite in contrast with that which pre- 
vailed among the kings; but judging from the statues which 
have been discovered in the midst of the forest of the Umasin- 
tla Valley, we may conclude that the story had come down from 
previous generations, and had been one means of perpetuating 
the priestly power. It is remarkable that the priests and the 
kings could have continued fo rule the people so long, and that 
the magnificence should have been perpetuated during so many 
changes and so many wars. 

It would seem, however, that the personal divinities which 
represented the Nature powers were worshiped to the very 
close of the chapter, although their moral character changed 
greatly with the change of events. The ancient divinities of 
the Toltecs and Mayas apparently had been peaceful and 
delighting in the peaceful pursuits of the people, but the 
modern divinities, especially those of the Aztecs, became very 
war-like and seemed to delight in the war-like pursuits of the 
people. Many wars began late in history and the human sacri- 
fices increased as the wars continued. 

In 1512 there were great acivitics and many sacrifices, and 
a new sacrificial stone was dedicated. During the next few 
years Montezuma seems to have determined by brilliant ex- 
ploits to defy the predictions of magicians and shake off his 
own superstitious fears, but his people had grown tired of war, 
and the tribes around were hostile and notwithstanding his 
prosperity and power he had reason to fear the overthrow of his 
followers; though the common people had been so long subject 



:.^ 



288 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

to the power of the king that they had no expectation or desire 
for deliverance. 

The practice of human sacrifice served to perpetuate this 
abject condition. There was another cause at work, viz.. the 
combination of the priests and rulers in the different cities. 
There is a record of a compact between the Mexicans and 
the surrounding tribes in the Valley of Mexico, that battles 
should take place at regular intervals on battle ground set 
apart, for the sole purpose of obtaining victims for sacrifice. 

There was a fortress built, and a garrison known as Monte 
Alban built by the Aztecs. The object was to secure cap- 
tives for the grand dedication of Huitzilopochtli, which took 
place in 1546. Montezuma up to the time of the arrival of the 
Spaniards had led his army against nearly all the tribes sur- 
rounding the city, in order that he might gain captives to be 
sacrificed to his divinities; thousands of them were brought 
in and one after another led to the summit of the pyramids 
where the priests threw them upon the sacrificial stone, tore 
their hearts out and threw them into the face of the sun. and 
their bodies down the sides of the pyramids where they were 
seized upon by the people and devoured, as if in a religious 
ceremony. These were the offerings presented to Huitzilo- 
pochtli, the god of war, and to Tezcatlipoca, the god of death, 
whose statue or idol was placed over the entrance to the court, 
which surrounded the pyramid. There were also shrines 
within the court in the shape of serpents' heads, filled with 
fire, and other symbols. These show how strangely the system 
of religion had been affected by the long wars which dis- 
tinguished the reign of Montezuma. It is probable that this 
practice of offering human sacrifice had greatly increased and 
was one result of the wars. Montezuma had ascended the 
throne amid great disturbances and had gained power over the 
tribes surrounding, who arose in revolt because of his cruelties, 
and yet the power of the priests seemed to keep up the prac- 
tice and increase the superstition of the mona''ch. The sacri- 
fices which he offe'^ed did not satisfy the conscience of Monte- 
zuma. His mind was full of fear, and so he readily submitted 
to Cortez. imagining that he was the Fair God, who had re- 
turned and who might deliver him from his enemies. This 
mingling of rage and fe^r was the natural con^^equence of the 
wars and the sacrifices which were offered. The evidence is 
that the system which had prevailed under the Toltecs was far 
more peaceful, and that the gods which were worshiped were 
more kindly in their spirit and represented the more kindly 
operations of nature. 

There were thirteen principal gods, the most notable being 
the God of Providence, the God of War, the God of Winds, 
and the God of Water. The God of Providence had a seat in 
the sky and had under hi-; care all human affairs; the God of 
Water was considered as the fertilizing power, and his dwelling 



r 



PERSONAL DIVINITIES AND NATURE POWERS 



was in ihe highest of the mountains, where he arranges the 
clouds; the God of War was the principal proteclor ol the 
Aztecs, and their guide in their wanderings. These gods were 
supernatural beings and had great power. Quetzallcoatl had 

all riches o£ gold and silver and of green stones, and a great 
abundance o( ornaments. 

The ciiy of Cholula was the place in which this god was 
best known. Choiula was given to commerce and handicraft, 
and worshiped Quetzatlcoall, who was Ihe God of merchand- 
ise. He came (roin the parts 
of Yucatan to the city of 
Cholula. He was a while 
man, a porliy person, with 
a broad brow, great eyes, 
and la ge beard: chasteand 
quiei and distinguished by 
moderation in all things. 
The people had good rea- 
sons for the reverence and 
devotion with which they 
regarded him. He taught 
the silversmiths their art: 
he desired no sacrifice of 
theblood of man or animals: 
he prohibited or forbade 
all war and violence. The 
name '■ Q u e tza 1 1 co a 1 1 " 
means "snake plumage," or 
"snake that has plumage "; 
this wa^i his symbol of 
power. He was, according 
to hislorian'!, high priest in 
the cJtvof Tulan; from that 
place he went to Cholula. 
Though in temporal things 
he wa-i ruler of Tulan, tn 
all spiritual and ecclesias- -i i -» p * 

tical matters, he was chief ■ ■ ■ 

pontiff in Cholula. A superior character was ascribed lo him. 
and was brought out bv his personal history, a history which in 
some respects resembles that of Christ himself. 

Quezatlcoall's repugnance lo the shedding of human blood 
was such that he voluntarily abandoned his throne and disap- 
peared. The story is that he embarked in a canoe made of 
snake skins and returned to the cast, the quarter from which 
he had come, though this comes from tl,e tendency to pir- 
sonify. The personal character of this divinity is very attrac- 
tive to modern minds, for he lost everything from ihe machi- 




oations o( his enemy Tczcatlipoca, but he endured his changes 
and calamities with patience, and entered with calmness into 
his new life and finally disappeared. 

There were four gods who were created and bore ihe human 
image; their great clear eyes swept rapidly over all; they saw 
the woods and rocks, the lakes and the sea, the mountains and 
valleys; they complimented all and admired alt. TheyreUinred 
ihjui-g^ anri said wc tiave received liflit, wc speah, we walk, we 
taste, we hear and understand, we know both that which is 
near and that which is far off. we see all things, both great and 
small, in all heaven and earth. Thanks, then, to the creator, 
we have been created and, therefore, we arc. 

But the gods were not wholly pleased with their work ; they 
said these men are too perfect, they know and understand too 
much. Then the four men slept, and there was a council in 
Heaven, and four women were made. Next after them were 
other men created, ancestors of other people. The language 
of all the families was confused, and no one of the four men 
could undeistand the speech of another. Next the three tribal 
gods were turned into stone, and they worshiped the gods that 
became stone, — offered them the blood of beasts and birds. 
Toward the end of their long life these beings were impelled 
to lay before their gods a more awful offering than the life of 
senseless beasts. They began to wet their altars with the 
heart's blood of human victims. Man was made four times 
and four limes destroyed, and so there were four ages. This 
is not a modern tradition, for it is perpetuated by the symbols 
contained in the calendar stone. The first age was the age of 
the sun, and was called the sun of the water by which every 
living thing was destroyed. The second age was that of the 
earth; it was closed by a great earthquake. The third age 
was that of the aii; it was ended by a tempest. The fourth 
age is fire, and is to be ended by complete conflagralion. 

Now ihis record of Creation and the symbols which are 
given to each, show that the Nature powers were all worshiped 
and that there were divinities representing each, The tran*^- 
formation of the divinities occurred: Nanahuatszin was changed 
into the sun, and TezcatecazI into the moon, 

This indicates that even the four quarters of the sky and 
the earth were presided over by the different divinities, ex- 
actly as with the wild tribes. The elements were symbolized: 
the water by reed, the (ire by flint, the air a tempest which 
overthrew a house. All of them arc portrayed on the calender 
stone. 

It is to be noticed that amnng the wild tribes. Che four quar- 
ters of the sky were ascribed to the personal divinities, and 
that these were called upon in all their religious ceremonies. 
Through their aid disease was banished. In this respect the 
system resembled that of the East, for Ormuzd was the God 
of Light; Indra, the God of Earth; Kali, the God of Fire; 



:^ 



PERSONAL DIVINITIES AND NATURE POWERS. 293 

ment in morals. Aphrodite was worshiped by the Greek; 
Dionysus, the God of Wine; Apollo, the God of Letters; 
also Vulcan, the God of Industry, and Venus, the Goddess of 
Love- 

We see in this the difference between the religion of the 
tecs and the Greets and Romans. All the gods may have re- 
sented the Nature powers, both in this continent and among 
Eastern nations, but wc find far more cruelty among the 
_3dso[ the Aztecs than among those of the Greeks, In Greece 
Alias bore up the four pillars of the earth; Uranus reigned 
supremely in ihc skies; Neptune ruled over the sea; Vulcan or 
Hephaestus ruled over the subterranean fires; Zeus was the god 
of the mountains and the chief gods of the Greeks were; Ceres, 
the Goddesses of Corn; iVlinerva, the Goddess of Maternity. 




the elements were personified in these gods of the Greeks, 
for Zeus was the cloud divinity, Pluto was the God of the 
Under World, Neptune was the God of Water, The elements, 
the points of the compass, the different Nature powers were 
ail represented, but the gods were mild and peaceful. The 
character of the Greeks was full of the love of nature and 
Ihe society of their fellow men, and religion gave character 
to their divinities. The divinities of the Aztecs also repre- 
sented their character. Tlaloc, the God of Water, was repre- 
sented with a glaring eye. He is sometimes seated upon the 
suastika, or whirling cross, which symbolized the points of ihe 
compass and motion of the sky. Huitzilopochlli, Ihc God of 



i" 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARBU*. ■ 

War. was represented as having teeth and fangs of the 5«<|tent, 
with the eye blazing in his head. His drapery fringed wttk 
the rattles or tails of the serpent; a death's head in the center 
of his body between his arms; its ghastly face looking out from 
the center of the body, the drapery which covered the arms 
and limbs seeming like a mockery by way of contrast. 

In one respect they resemble the gods of the Greeks, 
Romans. Egyptians. Assyrians. Babylonians, and Hindoos, for 
all these are represented as being both male and female, and 
having children. To illustrate: Jupiter, or Zeus, and Juno 
constituted the pair which dwelt on Mt. Olympus and ruled 
over all the other gods, though Uranus, or Saturn, is supposed 
to have dwelt alone in the skies and was the supreme ruler of 
the entire universe. The Egyptian divinities were represented 
in pairs, of which Isis and Osiris were the chief. 

The character of the personal divinities partook of the 
character of the people worshiping them, though they were all 
of ihem regarded as the pcrsonfications of the Nature powers, 
as well as supcrnaiural beings. Their chief characteristic was ^ 
thai they represented the real culture of the people, and so '^ 
were called Culture heroes. They bear names which vary ^^ 

according lo their locality and the people who worship them , 

Iizamna was one of these Culture heroes. He was said tam::zr3 
ented letters; the two sets of hieroglyphics which^c~m 
were designed to keep the records of the time ot the days- ■=. 
months, and years, which are so abundant in the codices, weii_-»e 
ascribL-d to him; though the sculptured pictographs found oic. -hi 
the calendar stone in Mexico were ot more recent origin. 

We shall find the same true of the personal divinities of thi-^ ■ ' 
Mayas and the people who inhabited Peru, including those ot f 
the Quichuas. It should be said that these people were moris^ f 
peaceful than the A/.tecs, but were more advanced in their cul- J- 
ture and in their religious ideas. The divinities of the Maya=^ -s 
have been described by the Spanish historians, — Sahagun^v^. 
Acosta, Clavigero, and ethers, — ^but long quotations have been^^ n 
made from their writings by Mr. H. H. Bancroft, The hiero-^cD- 
glyphics and pictographs have been reproduced by Lorc^ '^ 
Kingsborough in his famous work; besides these, copies of th» ■'^ 
codices have been recently reproduced by Due de LoubaiV -'■ 
These codices have been studied by a number of (icrmaK^ -*" 
scholars,— Seler, Schellhas, — and a few American scholars ^'i 
chief of whom are Dr. Cyrus Thomas and Dr. D. G. Brintor^^r n. 
The best books for the general reader and the most compr^^ '' 
hensive are those prepared by Dr. Brinton. entitled, ■'Th«-^3'S 
Primer of Mayan Hieroglyphics and American Hero Myths -^s " 
The Maya priests, as well as those of Peru, were connecte^^*^ 
with the government as an order of nobility; they were ther — le 
religious teachers; the leaders of ceremonies, sacrifices, aiv^*'' 

confessors; the oracles of the gods were committed to the if 

care. Votan, Zamna, Cuculcan, and all the other semi-mythra/* 



1 



PERSONAL DIVINITIES AND NATURK POWERS. 39S 

cal founders of the Maya civilization, united in their persons, 
the qualities of high priest and king. The Mayas intrusted 
the education of their youth to the priesthood, and the youths 
assisted the priests in their duties. Girls were placed in con- 
vents, and thousands of children were educated at the expense 
of the royal treasury. Religious feasts were held on certain 
fixed days of the calendar. The priests were occupied in 
teaching their sciences and writing books. Landa says, "We 
have found a great number of books among them." There 
were occasions when sacrifices lasted for many days, and when 
thousands of victims were offered. Dancing in the courts of 
the temple continued as long as the sacrifices lasted. The 
methods of sacrifice were peculiar: a piiest adorned with 
feathers and loaded with little bells, and having a knife in 
hand, opened the breast of the victim, tore out the heart, 
brandished it toward the cardinal points, and finally threw it 
into the face of the sun. 

There were eighteon festivals at which human sacrifices 
were offered, at such times the people ate the flesh of the vic- 
tims sacrificed. There were days in which young virgins were 
the victims. The naming of a child was a religious ceremony, 
generally the child was named after the god on whose day it 
was born. There was a practise among the priests of predict- 
ing the destiny of the child, by finding on the calendar the 
position of the stars on the day on which the child was born. 
Auguries were learned from the North Star, which was personi- 
fied and represented in the codices. The god of growth and 
the god of death were both personified. A sacrifice at the 
close of the year was offered, and a picture of it is found in 
the Dresden codex. Another picture, from the same codex, 
has been interpreted by Dr. Brinton as representing the God 
of Time bringing in the dead year. 

The effort has been made to identify the deities from the 
pictographs and glyphs, but it is largely guesswork, and can 
not be relied upon. This, however, may be said: that there 
were personal gods, both in Central 'America and Peru, which 
were worshiped as supernatural beings, but there was no such 
conception of a supreme god as we have, nor even a con- 
ception which was equal to that of the <>reeks. The gods 
were identified with the cardinal points, the operations of 
nature, the course of the seasons, and, perhaps, with the 
astronomical movements, though there is a doubt about this 
last supposition. The gods are supposed to have consorts and 
to have children, the children performing offices which were 
peculiar to themselves. To illustrate: Cuculcan is supposed 
to be a god of the west; his consort was the rainbow; their 
children were the Bacabs or giants, called "Chacs." They 
were also gods of the cardinal points and of the crops. They 
are represented in the codices as drawing stores from the 
cloud vases. Each of the gods had his own mission and his 



ag6 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

own personality, so that many have imagined that they could 
recof^nize them by the Dictographs. The god with a single 
tooth, is said to be the \i6on god; the god with the serpent 
issuing l^from his mouth, is said to represent the chief god, 
Itzamna; the gud with the shaded face, is supposed to be 
Cuculcan, who watched over the crops. 

Wo arr also to notice that the chief gods of the Peruvians 
resembled those ot the Mayas, but were nearer to our own con- 
ception of the divinity. The prayers addressed to them breathe 
a pure spirit of devotion. The chief god was the embodiment 
ol the light of day, and was represented by the sun, whose face 
wan wrought of gvild and placed upon the walls of the temple. 
There were Culture heroes who were the personification of 
light. The ortice and chara ter of the supreme gods were very 
stnulir to those ot the Mavis. Hochica was the supreme 
male dtvinitv. Ins consort was the Rainbow; Cuchaviva was the 
godvless oi lains ami ;vaters, fields, medicine, and child-bear- 
ing; W^tan was the chief god. he assigned the different races 
of men the place* where they were to dwell, he instituted civil 
laws, .uul was the Culture hero of the Mayas, so Viracocha 
was the chiof >;od and Culture hero of the Quichuas. He 
corresponded to VJue.MticvMtl and Itzamna. The worship of 
Tachacamac appeated in ancient Peru, his name means giving 
life to the woiUl All v'^f these divinities were worshiped with 
the idea that thev had once lived upon the earth in human 
form, weie white anv! bearded, but had withdrawn, and yet the 
expectativMi was that they would return. In this respect, the 
pA|:an iviea was not unlike that which is held by Christians, 
thovi^h the character of Christ is infinitely superior to any of 
these Nature gods The chief ditference between them was 
that thev lepreseutevi the Nature powers, rather than the per- 
sonatitv v^t C»vhI. To illustrate : we find in Peru the story of 
the tour brother^?. Thev ap^^ared on earth after it bad been 
rescued tiom the primeval watets. and the face of the land was 
duided Vetween them. Manco Capac tv»ok the north: CoIIa, 
the south. Tutah^a. the west, and the east, the region whence 
Cv^me t^e s;:n and :be li^rht. was jiivra to Viracocha. under his 
itame ot the Finisher, he who vV:v,p'ete< and perfects. 



SOME RECENT ITALIAN ARCH^OLOGICAL 
INVESTIGATIONS. 

I BY ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN. 



I. Grotto of Zachito, In the " Archivio per I'Antropo- 
logia" (Vol. XXXIII., 1933, pp. 197-216) G. Patroni writes of 
La grotta preistorica del Zachtto and E Regalia (Ibid., pp. 217- 
275) treats SuUa fauna della grotle di h'rola c Xac/iilo. Both caves 
are near Caggiano in Salerno, and were visited by Prof. Patroni 
first in 1900. The cave of Zachito yielded no br nze objects, 
but this fact does not necessarily imply their entire ignorance 
of that metal, since their neighbors of the cave of Pertosa, 
whose culture and the Zachitan show many close nsemblances, 
possessed it. Of stone and bone implements a number were 
found, among them three small obsidian knives (obsidian ob- 
jects were lacking at Pertosa) and an unused bone needle, 
showing manufacturing methods. But the important finds at 
Zachito are ceramic,— clay whorls (perforated), large and 
small vases, etc.,— although the quantity is small as compared 
with that discovered at Pertosa. The material is practically 
identical in the two grottos, and the resemblances in orna- 
mentation are striking. Both at Pertosa and at Zachito the 
pottery was made inside the caves; the fabricators were 
women who remained "at home." while the men were away 
hunting, warring, or pasturing domestic animals at a distance. 
The pottery of both grottos is marked with the fingers of 
women. Certain very small vessels, apparently in imitation of 
the larger pots, etc . may be the attempts of children, or, per- 
haps, their toys. The type of pottery at Zachito and Pertosa 
is the same as that of the prehistoric "station" recently dis- 
covered at Scoglio del Tonno. near Tarento, The culture re- 
presented at Zachito Prof. Patroni attributes to "the oldest 
people who occupied southern Italy from time immemorial." 
the Siculi of history. In southern Italy, then, there has been 
a persistence or survival of neolithic population, culture and 
ceramic art; also an evolution of civdization. The absence 
from both Zachito and Pertosa of the horse makes it prob'ble, 
Patroni thinks, that this animal had rot yet been brought into 
the country, while the presence at Zachito of the camel sug- 
gests relations with Bactria or Arabia by way of the sea. 
Regalia, who discusses the Zachitan camel at some length 
(pp. 257-268) is inclined to look upon it as an intrusive ele- 
ment, possibly brought by sea. The presence of the camel in 
connection with human remains in a prehistoric "station" is 
the fint case of the kind reported, not only for Italy, but for 
the whole continent of Europe as well. The date of the 



agS TH£ AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

human occupation of the Pertosa grotto Patroni fixes at about 
2000-1750 B. C, or perhaps somewhat earlier, possibly much 
earlier. Neither the people of Fertosa nor those of Zachito 
possessed any domesticated birds. As stated above, they 
lacked the horse, but had the dog« the swine, the cow, the 
sheep, and the goat. There were three breeds of dogs, two of 
Kwine, probably three of cattle, and two of sheep Prof. 
Regalia estimates that domestic animals furnibhed about two- 
thirds of the animal food of these people. Remains of many 
wild animals also occur. 

2. •• Castbllibri •• OF Tribstb, Etc. As casteUirri art known 
in Italy walled places on heights of from 100 to 500 meters, 
corresponding somewhat to the German ** Burgwalle " and 
'* BurgD r|re." They are particularly numerous in Istria, — of 

{73 castelheri known, 126 belong to Trieste, 74 to Gorz, 383 to 
stria, and 20 to Carniola. Of these Carlo Marchesetti has in- 
vestigated 524. The results of his careful studies are given in 
his / castellieri preistarici di Trieste e delta Regiane Giulia (Trieste, 
1903). These castellieri contain remains of all periods from the 
Neolithic Age to the time of the Romans, and the oldest are at- 
tributed to the " Illyro-Veneti." They seem to have first been 
built close to the sea, as on the Quarnero islands, and then to 
have followed the heights inland. The people who built these 
earliest castellieri were in the Neolithic Age, although somewhat 
acquainted with copper and bronze. About looo B. C, an in- 
vasion of Illyrians from Carniola into northern Italy took place. 
These immigrants were in the Bronze Age and had some knowl- 
edge of iron, lived in castellieri and burned their dead. They 
left. behind them huge necropoli, only a few of which (Sta. 
Lucia, Caporetto, S. Canziano, etc.) have been explored. This 
Illyrian culture, according to Marchesetti, had three periods: 
I, 100C-800 H. C. (Hallstatt objects); 2, 800-600 B. C. (great 
independent progress in native industry); 3, 600-400 B. C 
(Etruscan infiuence) With the invasion of the Celts comes 
the introduction of the La Tone culture and the downfall of 
many old casUUiiri settlements. Against the Romans the cas- 
tellieri people long and stubbornly defended themselves, until 
in 182 D. C the founding of Aquileia marked the final con- 
quest of Istria. The Romans, however, made use of the sites 
to build new and stronger distdlieri which they garrisoned with 
their soldiery. During the Middle Ages the castellieri were 
often used as places of refuse; today only their ruins are left, 
and these Nfarchesetti urges the people and governmental 
authorities to preserve, as far as possible. Lissauer, whose 
review (Mitt. d. Anthr. G. in Wien, k>04. p. 87) is the basis of 
this note, evidently considers Marchesetti's archaeological work 
•f great importance. 

3. Bkon/e Ci'i n RE. Important is Colini's study La ciznltd 
del M»«A» M Italui (Bull, d. palctn. ital.. Vol. XXIX., 1903) of 



RECENT ITALIAN ARCHvEO LOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 199 

ich a r^sutn^ is given by Dr. H ubert Schmidt (Zbl. f. Amhr., 
J4, pp. 192-193). According lo Ci'lmi tlie Bronze- Age people 
tiic Jtmiii lii capantu (pit dwellings) and grottos show thcm- 
ves in various ways (dwellings, stone implements, burial, etc.) 
be descendants of the primitive neolithic population. They 
longed to a non Aryan stock, the " Ibero-Ligurian." The 
icr Bronze Age in Upper Italy was contemporary with thepre- 
^censean culture ot Troy, Phrygia and the isles uf Greece, 
lations with ^Egean-Mycensan culture mark the end of the 
onze Age and the transition to the Iron Age in Upper Italy. 
ese facts exclude a connection of Trov with the neolithic 
landkeramik." according to Schmidt. The influence of the 
itern group of pile-dwellings and tcrratnarc can be traced 
ithward into the Italian Matche. The older Ibero-Ligurian 
pulation, of Ancona and Pcraro, retainen their mode of 
elling. and partly, also, their funeral rites, but the Ficenian 
iropoli of the eirly Iron Age exhibit richly furnished skeic- 
i-graves with lying '■ Hocker." A somewhat analogous de- 
opmcnt took place also in Lower Italy. At Scoglio del 
nno in Tarento, the upper layers contained imported My- 
lican pottery and a Mycensan clay idol, — finds of great im- 
■tance (Schmidt thinks) for the chronology of the Bronze 
e, not merely in Italy, but also in central and northern 
rope. The necropolis of Tiinmari in the Piovince of Matera, 
>ws the last stages of the Bronze Age in Lower Italy, or, per- 
>s, the transition to the Iron Age. The piesence of crema- 
Q here seems to show that by the end of the Bronze Age the 
yan population had reached the Ionian Sea. 

4. Pre-Roman Inscriptions. In the " Rivista archeol. d. 
»v. e. ant dioc. di Como " (Vol. XLVI., 1902, pp. 25-64) 
Giussani publishes an article on f.' iscri^ione nord-etrusca de 
istrelt' e U altra iscrizioni pre-romanf del nostra Urritorio. (LOa- 
ning all the pre- Roman inscriptions (Rhsetian, Gallic) of the 
icese of Como. The "North Etruscan" ine>cription (the 
oe is now in the Cantonal museum at Lugano) found in 
^ at ihe northern end of Lake Lugano, is specially con- 
ered. Giussani thinks the language of this epitaph Ligurian, 
t Wilser ( Zbl. f. Anthr., 1904, pp. 104- 105 ), who reviews the 
icle briefly, holds it to be Rh^tian ( North Etruscan) and the 
tves to which it relates belong to Ihe time of the Roman 
iquest. 222 B. C. The proper names contained in the Como 
criplions are of onomatological importance. Alko-i'iuvs, as 
.Iscr points out, is probably identical with Saxon Alcuin. 

5. Obsidian in Sardinia. The account of Lo do. in the 
lull, di paletn. ital." (Vol. XXIX,, 1903) of the Stasione neo- 
<ra dtl Mojite Urpino presso Cagliarri, is of importance as de- 
ibing a work-place for stone implements, particularly of 
sid>an, material for which was obtained from Monte Arc! 
j Monte Trebino, near Oristino on the west coast of the 
ind. 



JOB THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

6. Plants of Pompeii. Id the Museo NuioDale di N^li 
are some t6o specimens of plants aad fruits obtained from tbt 
r><ins of Pompeii. Of these Wittmarck, whose article. /Mf n 
Pomfifii gefunJenen pfianzlichcn Rtsff, appeared in Eogler'i 
" Botan. Jahrb. " (Vol. XXX III., [903. pp. 3S-63), has examined 
some 130 (seeds and (ruiu). Of archaeological interest is bii 
attempt, from consideration of the (ruics found, to fix itie 
month ID which the city was destroyed. — the 24th of Auj ' 



ANTrQUITV OF LONDON AS A CITV. 



IgMjJ 



At t^e time of the Conquest, 1035, London was a wa1 
city, and this fact largely influenced the condilions of life of 
its citizens. By day, the gates were watched, each by iwostr- 
geants, who were careful to see that no leper or fugitive bood- 
man entered the cit> . Ai the tolling of the curfew bell the 
gates were shut; thereafter no one was suffered to go about the 
streets or ways. The sergeants of Billingsgate and the Bridge 
had to see thai all boats were moored on the city side of the 
Thames; none were permitted to cross the river at night. The 
exaggerated feai of invasion, which in our day has prevented 
the making of a Channel tunnel, is no new thing. Stow, lell' 
ing of a report that the I'rench King was meditating an inva- 
sion of England, laughs at the panic excited by the Tumor: 
" They had in times past bragged they would blow all French- 
men out of Kngland, hearing now a vain rumor of the enemy's 
coming, Ihey run to the walls, break down all the houses ad- 
joining, destroy and lay them flat, and do all things in great 
fear, not one Frenchman yet having set foot on shipboard; what 
■ would they have done if the batlle had been at hand, and the 
weapons over their head !" 

Till long after the Conquest, the houses, closely packed to- 
gether, were but low huts of wood, thatched with straw or reeds, 
It is no wonder that fires were frequent and destructive. Whal 
has been called the first English Building Act provided, in 1189. 
that party walls should be solidly buili, but left untouched the 
question of roofing. In 1212 a terrible fire raged for ten dayt; 
part of London Bridge was destroyed, and il is said that 1,000 
persons lost iheir lives in the fire. After this it was forbidden 
to roof houses otherwise than with tiles, shingle-boards, or lead- 
Later, tiles became to be generally used. 

An interesting question relates to the population of London. 
The poll-tax furnishes the means of calculating that in 1377 
the population of the city was about i)5,tx». Trade seems to 
have been carried on mostly in the open street: hence ihe 
names Cheap and East Cheap. Shops were open to tbt 



M 



ANTIQUITY OF LONDON AS 



301 



calher. windows being very rare. Trade regulations were 
:rict. anti the punishment for cheating severe. In some cases 
IC punishment was such as entirely commends itself to 
lodern judgment. Thus, in 1364, a certain John Penrose, 
anvicted of selling unsound wine, was first compelled to drink 
draught of it, then the rest of the stuff was poured on his 
ead. 

The Bridge in its day was esteemed one of the wonders of 
Europe, As Howell renders a eulogy in Latin verse: 
'■ Lei Ihe whol^ E -tth now her wonders count. 
This RridKc of Wonders is llie Paramouni." 

he Bridge consisted of nineteen arches and a drawbridge, 
nder each arch the tide at certain times flowed like a cataract, 
le force of which was in some ca-es used to turn mills, or to 
«se water fcr the service of the citj . The Bridge seriously 
npeded the navigation of the river. The fact is crudely ex- 
ressed in old views which show boats upset and men rarinanies 
I gurgi/f vmlo. The drawbridge was London's chief defence 
I popular uprisings, which always came from the southern 
Dunties, then the srat of manufactures. So late as 1554, Sir 
homas Wyatt, although he had artillery with him, found the 
ty impregnable on ihc side of the Bridge. He was com- 
ellcd to lead his forct-t to the bridge at Kingston before he 
3uld cross the Thames and make a serious a.ssault on London, 
/c are not sure that the neighborhood of London Bridge docs 
Dt belter preserve features of Old London than any other part 
f the city. 



A REVOLUTIONARY INCIDENT, 

BY JEAN URQUflARDT. 

There is one quaint historic landmark in New Jeriey which 
rems to have been utterly forgotten by the chroniclers. It is 
IC old Copany Meeting-House in Burlington county; and it 
as always belonged to the Society of Friends. The school- 
ause and mectinghouie and grave-yard, all occupy the same 
iclosure; and the ground slopes down from the grave-yard to 
le little creek beyond. In the summer time, the country boys 
rbo are nothing if not ingenious) used to coast down this hill 
tt planks, and they slid well, those boards, on the dry grass. 
n Thursday, all the school children had to go to the service 
I the old meeting-house. Quaker style, and there were many 
red little arms and legs on those hard benches before the 
flcrnoon had worn away. The youngsters firmly believed 
tat the old building was haunted, and the more daring of the 
ays, for a diversion, would sometimes get up in the loft dur- 
ig recess and wave something while before the windows, which 
ivariably scared the little girls into tears and flight. 



I JBB THE AUERICAN ASTrQUARIAN. 

The grave-yard was in a sadty ocglected state. I remembet 
seeing a spruce piae vfaicfa bad been planted originally at the 
head and between the graves of an aged couple who died loi.g 
years ago- The tree seemed to feci that it bad a mission to 
perform, for it bad spread out from year lo year, until it had 
almost entirely covered the two graves^ thus uniting the two 
old people in death, as they had t«en together in life. Most 
of^ibe graves bad not fared ctcd so well, for they were in 
various stages of collapse and disorder. 

The old meetiag-house was built during the Revolution, but 
before the upper story was ceiled, a 6ght took place between 
the patriots and the red coats. It was quite near by, and thf 

fray has always been known as the skirmish of Petticoat Bridge 

The Americans brought their wounded into the still unfinished^=; 
meeting house, and those that were badly hurt were carried » [ _j 
into the second story and laid (a hard enough bed) on (he^H- 
lumber that was intended for the ceiling; and the church be- ^= 
came hospital, too. Then, when the bitter days of war li ii ■ 
passed, the building was finished; and it is a severe comment ^^ 
ary upon the mild and peace-loving Quakers that they u5ecz;^Bi 
those 5ame blood-stained boards for the ceiling, just as the ^ i 
bad intended from the first. It may have been patriotism, o — i 
it may have been economy, who knows^ 

The old meeting-house ii a plain frame building, and th^ 
first floor, or church proper, looks very bare until after yo^ 
have been upstairs. Straight wooden benches range primly 
along a center aisle, and there is a slightly elevated platformn 
at the funber end of the room. A big old-fashioned stove in 
(be mi:ldle of the place is the only thing which even vaguely 
suggests comfort. As one turns to ascend the narrow stair- 
way leading to the second stor>' so3ie reddish-brown stains con- 
front the visitor, for they look out of place on the white-washeW 
wall. They will show you the stains of Rizzia's blood at Holy- 
rood Castle, but here we have the blood-stains of a wounded 
patriot, and it trickled down the wall as they brushed him 
against it.incarrj-ing him up to the second story. In the center 
of the Roor. upstairs, there is a largr trap- door, with a low guard- 
rail about it. and around this hollow square are low, narrow 
benchc<i built in stair-fashion, the lowest being next the trap- 
door. In the early times the Friends flourished in that part of 
New Jersey, and this arrangement of trapdoor and seats was 
made to accommodate the overflow of the congregation from 
the lower room. But one forgets all else with one glance at 
the historic ceiling, for there, seemingly burned into the wood, 
are the touch of the bleeding hands and the print of the 
wounded feet. Some of thrse are as distinct as though they 
had been made yt.<:terday. and here the doubting Thomas may 
see and even feel the tracei of the vcn,- life-blood that was 
sh*d to achieve our national liberly. 

Oh that each and ever>' grumbling citizen of this fair land 



i 
1 



"INCIDENT. 



y».i 



might make a pilgrimage to this little shrine of heroism ! He 
need not measure his length on the ground, like the Eastern 
devotees; he need not even put peas in his shoes, as a penance, 
although he might afterwards find some stray sand or gravel 
stones there, for Burlington county does not furnish asphalt 
roads for the convenience of the traveller; but what he would 
find, would be more loyalty rnliis heart, more devotion to his 
country, and more fi spcct for iho-e who freely gav^ their lives 
in her defence. 



^P THE HERMITAGE. 

The Hermitage, the old home ten miles east of Nashville, 
Tenn., the place where President Andrew Jackson lived and 
died, lias been faithfully reproduced by the State of Ten- 
nessee as her State Building at the World's Fair. The bed 
in which General .Jackson died, and other furniture of his 
room is now in place just as it stood in lH4n, and the room 
is attracting a great deal of interest from Exposition visi- 
tors. 

The original Hermitage was designed and built by Gen- 
eral Jackson in 1^35, and still stands in a remarkable state 
of preservation, with the furniture restored in its original 
place. The original paintings of President Jackson and 
his wife, and the original furniture of three of the bed- 
rooms and many other attachments have been removed to 
the Hermitage at the Fair Grounds. The dining-room is 
reproduced from the original, which has been entered by 
seven different Presidents. To the right of the main hall 
the sleeping apartments are reached The first one is that 
occupied by the famous hero of the Battle of New Orleans. 
When one looks at the very bed. in which he breathed hia 
last, with the same coverings and pillows and valance, with 
the candle table at its head, the wardrobe, bureau and 
tables just in their old positions, and hears the crack of the 
rifles and the rattle of the machine guns of the Boer War 
Exhibition near by, one cannot help but think of the battles 
of " Old Hickory " against the Indians in Florida. 

President Jackson was a famous host, and entertained 
everyone from a peddler to a count. Many of the guests 
would remain with him for years. 

In front of the Hermitage near Nashville is a beautiful 
lawn twenty-tive acres in extent. The drive-way, laid out 
in the form of a guitar, is lined on each side by rows of 
cedars set out in 1B35 by General Jackson and his son. To- 
day these cedars are of gigantic size, and their branches 
intertwining at the top form an avenue, said to be one Of 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



1 



the most beautiful scenes m the State of Tennessee. The 
old place U beinp kept up by tbe Lisdies' Hermitage Asso- 
ciation, an organization of Nashville women. ~ 



THE EMPEROR OF JAPAN. 

BY WILLIAU 8. CUKTIS. 
(StOHl Inm At Oic^a ttKotd-Hanld.) 



I 



Notwithstanding the Emperor of Japan's participation id 
public affairs, be siill lives in semi-seclusion Few people are 
ever permitted to approach the palace. Only a very small 
proportion of the population of Japan has ever had the privi- 
lege of seeing the residence of their rulei. and it has never 
been photographed. This. I am told, is due to a hereditary 
feeling concerning the sancity of the person of the emperor, 
1 believe he is the only man on earth who can establish his 
divine parentage by the testimony of the entire state, and he 
received the symbol of his imperial power from the divine 
founder of the nation. These symbols are preserved in aa 
ancient shrme in Shiba Park, near Tolcio. one of the most 
beautiful examples of Japanese architecture, and they consist 
of 3 mirror, a crystal, and a sword. The mirror represents his 
majesty's conscience. When he looks into it he sees the ruler 
of 43,000,000 of people, and is reminded of his responsibilities, 
The crystal is the emblem of purity. When he looks upon il 
he is reminded of what his character and his government 
should be. The sword is the emblem of power. When he 
looks upon it he is reminded of the authority and dignity oi 
his office and the power placed in his hands to maintain the 
right and correct the wrong. Upon the i6lh of December, the 
day assigned to the creation of Japan, the emperor visits this 
shrine and offers prayers to his ancestors, with significant cere- 
monies. 

While from our point of view it may not be strictly true, as 
proclaimed in the constitution of Japan, that he holds his 
throne "by virtue of a lineal succession I'nbroken for ages 
eternal," he is undoubtedly the representative of the oldest 
dynasty in the world. 700 years older than the popes. No 
other family ever reigned so long. No king, no emperor has a 
better title, and no man except some of the bare-legged, nomad 
B<-douin chiefs of Syria and Arabia, have a longer pedigree, 
for he is No. 122 in an unbroken line from Jimmu. a god who 
was not only the founder of the Japanese Empire, but the 
creator of the archipelago According to our reckoning of 
time, he lived from 660 to 585 B. C. The existing records of 
the Japanese government date from 713 A. D. unbroken No 
other government, except China, has such venerable archives. 

In theory the Emperor of Japan is the source of all good. 
and the fountain of alt power. He owns every acre of the 



THE EMPEROR OF JAPAN. 305 

e, his authority is absolute, the lives of his subjects are 

use at his pleasure, his judgment his infallible, and his 
I are the mandate of God; but in practice, because of a 
tary surrender of this autocratic authority, there is quite 
ch freedom, democracy and self-government in Japan as 
is in Germany and other European countries, 
lis man, this divine personage, "sacred and inviolate," 
tardy lifted Japan out of the list of oriental despotisms 
February 11. iRSq, and admitted his subjects to a large 

in the administration of public affairs, and on April i 
'ing gave seif-government to every community in the 
e. 

icre is no parallel in history for such an act. Never bc- 
has an absolute monarch voluntarily yielded despotic 
r, and in this case it was inherited from twenty-five cen- 

of ancestors, unquestioned. There was no revolution, 
mpulsion, no demand on the part of the people, but Ihe 
ng of constitutional liberty for which millions of people 
tcr parts of the world have fought and died was con- 
I upon Japan from a sublime sense of justice, as a recog- 

of the rights of man, and the spirit of progress. In the 
ice of the imperial family, the peers, nobles and high 
onaries of the empire, the chosen representatives of the 
c composing the first parliament, and the members of the 
natic corps, the emperor stepped from his throne, and 
;d the minister president of state a roil of parchment, in- 
d with the constitution of the Empire of Japan. This 
nent recognizes the sancity of the imperial title, and his 
ty remains as before the source of all power and law.but 
sponsibilitics in the exercise of these functions are now 
i by parliament, and only in the presence of great 
;ency, to protect the public safety and the preserve the 
e, can he suspend the acts of parliament. Even then his 
ust be approved by that body immediately after it next 
bles. On the other hand, the laws of parliament are sub- 
) the approval of the emperor. Thus honors and respon- 
ics are even, and one is a check upon the other. 



PREHISTORIC ANIMALS. 

sails fields near Kimswick, Mo., have yielded a number 
detons, — two thousand bones in various iitages of petre- 
a. These were taken from the same locality where Koch 
he largest skeleton ever e.xhumed and which isjnowjon 
tion at the British Museum, and is called the Missouri 
;er. Mr. C. W. Beehler discovered these later ones, 
are many Sal! Lick Springs in the neighborhood, which 
nts for the many fossil animals. The ground is miry 
i the springs and is strongly impregnated with other 
cals. 






Tt t v.r i-i .-..'^'.m-r.-.r. :-. 1^5 - -* ^ ^^ ^^ id-s aaccmcnt in 
Jivti^trr -«. <.-.-: 'r-jf --t-^r r.^ ::i.irt*r5 : :r rr* ^cescat day engi- 
iw^^ V, \\^\vc^^, \zjk\ zt £Z',9i -sL^zz ^-jCc liias his ancient 
r>r''^*'{V^ ;<r.': wr. .'t :r.t* :* ".-t: :- nisy tkrngs, :t frequently 
R^^;*-r:r.i T.*: ir. izy^n'.'.z :r ippLiincc c:aamocly believed to 
rAty,n^ 'r, mryi^n -.rr.ci :i : - -:: i :o r*. c bees kcovn and used 
c/:iif»*f.e» a^fo f:^>p-^ m^-te of raricu^ kx&is of fiber and 
Je<i?f.^r if-t of vfrrv i-xc.ent lit-t. Rop*t5 of palm have been 
ff/fin< in hg[ypt Jr. tiie : jn-.'.^ of Beci-Hisen labout yxxyB.C), 
an^ on th^ wall* of thf:f>: :o:r.i>s ts il*^- shown the process of 
f^eparfr»s|^ htm^. In the •orn:> of Thebes of the times of 
Tbofhme^ III. ^a.V^it iO>: B.C.; is a ^roup representing the 
pff^,^,^% of tiri%tin^ thong-^ of leather and the method of cut- 
tiojf leather into thongs. The Bible tells us that Samson was 
tf^junri With ropc<>. and that :he spies sent by Joshua into Jericho 
ircrc let down in a basket, presumably by means of a rope. At 
Nimrud, A'l^yri;!, a carved slab showing the siege of a castle 
waf found, on which a soldier was represented in the act of 
cutting a rope to which a backet for drawing water from a well 
oiit»ide the castle walls was attached The wire rope is gener- 
ally con,sidcrcd a modern invention, a product of modern skill 
and it will surprise many to learn that its manufacture is really 
a rediscovered lost art. Although the Assyrians practised the 
art of wire-beating, no evidence has been found to indicate 
that they used wire for making rope. The excavations of 
Pompeii have, however, brought to light a piece of bronze 
wire rope nearly fifteen feet long and about one inch in circum- 
ference.' This rope is now in the Museo Horbonico at Naples. 
It consists of three .strands laid spirally together, each strand 
being made up of fifteen wires twisted together, and its c«»n- 
utruction does not, therefore, differ greatly from that of wire 
ropes made to-day. Pompeii was buried A. D. 79. 1,925 years 
ago; but how long wire ropes had been known it is impossible 
to tell, though, judging by the knowledge shown in the con- 
jitructjr)n. it may be safely concluded that they were known for 
a considerable time. The use to which these ropes were put 
in not definitely known, but further excavations may shed some 
light on the subject, As to the use of rope tramways, it is 
said that they were in use as early as 1644. 



AN KXHIHITION OF ANCIENT ART. 

Marly nrxt y(»ar there will be held in the Louvre, Paris, 
an exhibition of the ])riceless Parisian antiquities recently 
brou^rht over by M. de Morgan from Susa, in Persia, where 
he has been conducting a very extensive excavation on be- 
half of the iMench ^^overnnient. A ))articularly sugg"estive 
foatnn* of the showing will be the collection of over 150 



AN EXHIBITION OF ANCtENT ART. 



307 



pictures by the well-known landscapist. Georges Bondoux, * 
who was especially attached to the De Morjjan mission for 
the purpose of fixing the present aspect of those wonder- 
ful and picturesque ruins that date from remote antiquity. 
and which are scattered over Persia, but which are rapidly 
disappearing under the hand of official vandalism and neg- 
lect. The most valuable find of the De Morgan excavating 
party is a bronze statue of a woman, a portrait doubtless 
of Queen Vapirazu. of exquisite workmanship, dating 1600 
B. C The style is said to be Donate lloesque. This is the 
only presentment of a woman of so early a period which 
has yet been discovered in Persia. 

The excavations, extending over six square leagues and 
employing over 500 diggers, also revealed— in addition to 
enormous quantities of pottery and sections of extremely 
ancient buildings— several silver statuettes of exquisite 
execution, recalling early Grecian art, and a considerable 
number of small square blocks of stone, used in house con- 
struction, covered with inscriptions in Elamite, and in the 
even more ancient Anzonite, a language recently deciphered 
by Pere Schell, professor of the Sorbonne, who also accom- 
panied the mission. One of M. Bondoux's most interesting 
paintings is of the ruined blue mosque at Thoris— Tafris, in 
the confines of Persia and Russia, which is constructed en- 
tirely of bright blue tiles. 



EXPEDITION TO LAKE CHAD. 

An expedition is being organized in Great Britain for 
the exploration of those regions of British Northern Nigeria 
Protectorate situated nearest th^ western shore of Lake 
Chad. The object of the expedition is to survey and in- 
vestigate thoroughly, and to gather .lome zoological knowl- 
edge indigenous to the country traversed. Some three 
months will be spent at a place called Tonga on the Gon- 
gola River, one of the northern tributaries of the Benue, 
which is conveniently situated for exploring the provinces 
of Southern Bornu and Bauchi. The expedition is equipped 
with two steel Hat-bottomed shallow-draft boats. These 
have been built in sections for easy transit to Africa, and 
will there be reassembled. They have been provided to 
facilitate navigation of the shallower rivers, and will prove 
of great assistance in both the survey work and the collec- 
tion of zoological specimens. After completing all the 
work that can be accomplished from the Tonga base, the 
expedition will move northward into the basin of the Koma- 
Lugu River, where a considerable area of little known 
country will be mapped and explored. Proceeding down 
the river to Lake Chad, Kuka will be reached. Thence it is 
hoped that the party will be able to proceed to the German 



THE AMERICAS ANTIQUARIAN. 



^ 



and French spheres of inHueace on the soathem shores of 
the lake, and return joumev will probably be made byway 
of Shari and Lo^ooe Rivers, ptast Lake Triburi, to tbfi 
Kebbi, vberv is a tribatary of the Benue. 



THE PYGMIES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 

Tbe Pygmies of the Philippines are a race ot black 
dwarfs called Necritiw (little negroes), who are true say- 
ages, relying for food entirely upon wild plants and wild 
animals, roaming tbro»^b the forests in small bands of a 
few famHies, having no tised places of abode and no shelter 
except the skin tents or tepees they carry with them. They 
number about 3).>.<**t. and their death rate and birth rate 
must be closely iiaraltel. as they seem neither to increase 
nor to decrease. These InxBy-wuMy men are said to be of 
smaller stature than any other distinct race, even smaller 
than the pygmies of Central Africa; and, while they have 
crinkled hair and black skins, their features and craniums 
are nearer the Mongolian than tbe African type. Notwith- 
standing their small stature they are fiercer and more 
feared by the civilized inhabitants than any other of the 
savage tribes ujKtn the islands- 

The presence of the Pygmies at tbe World's Fair Grounds 
has created a spirit of jealously among the Indian tribes 
surrounding the Indian School. Tntil the arrival of these 
little black men, the Indians were one of the chief attrac- 
tions. Each tribe exerted ever>- effort to make their camp 
tbe most attractive. The braves could be seen each moni- 
ing com|iaring their rectyds of attendance, which they kept 
by cutting notches in a stick, or depositing a bead in a 
bowl. Since the I'ygmy camp has been established the 
Indians have been somewhat neglected, and the Pygmies 
are holding the center of the stage. Chief Yellow Hair, 
Hollow Horn Deer, Long Grand, and Cut Finger, arrayed 
in all their linery. stationed therasetves near the Pygmy 
camp, and tried to induce visitors to ignore them In con 
versation with some of the visitors. Yellow Hair made 
the statement that the intruders -were no good, hair too 
short, not much clothes." He would point out with pride 
to himself and companions, then to their tepees, a ' ' 
visitors to leave and visit them. 




ANTHROPOIfiOGICAb NOTES. 

BY ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN. 

Anthropological Bibliogkaphv of North AFKrcA. In 
the "Revue tunisienne" for 1903, M. Bertholon publishes 
Lmtme anthropologique Nord-Africaine, igo2'it)oj, treating of 
prehistory, craniology, and anthropometry, ethnography and 
sociology, and demography. Another bibliography appeared 
previously. 

Dravidian Element Among the Bataks. According to 
Professor H. Kern, the eminent Dutch Orientalist, certain 
Dravidian ethnic names occur among the Karo-Bataks of 
Sumatra, proving, apparently, contact between these two races 
in the past. Some of the subdivisions of the Simbiring, one 
of the five mergas, or chief tribes of the KaroBataks are said 
lo have names of Diavidian origin: Miiijula Malajalam 
(Malabar), 7)o/i)ff -^Soliyani {i.e. natives of the Tamul country, 
^di^xa), Ptindija Pandya (name of one of the lieccan peo- 
ples), etc. These names are to be accounted for on the theory 
that a portion of the Simbirings are the desccndai. ts of Dravid- 
ian immigrants, who have amalgamated with the Bataks. In 
addition to the>e elhnic names many habits and customs of the 
Simbirings, particuiirly in connection with wedding and fun- 
er;il rites and practices, are said to differ much from those of 
the other Karo-Bataks, and to indicate also a Dravidian origin. 
Prof. Kern's article is published in the "Bijdragen tol de Land 
en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Inclic ''for 1903 (This note 
is based on the brief abstract given in "Globus," Vol. S4, p. 
132). To settle a question of this kind, however, thoroughly 
convincing evidence is required, and some of tht analogies 
cited, may, after all, be quite misleading. 



Hungarian Ethnologv. Of Count G(!:za Kuun's Hazdnk 
iakdi a romai uralom megsoiintt: uUin a hoiijoglaliis uiejtHg (Buda- 

fiest, 1903, p 34), which treats of the ethnology of Hungary 
rom the time of the Roman occupation to the Magyar con- 
quest, C. V. Uyffaivy gives (Zbl. f. Anthr., Vol. IX., 1904. pp. 
io6-( 10) a good receniion. The Gepid,-e (after whom earlier 
Hungary was called Gfpiiiia. as it had been formerly Gothia 
from the Goths), seem to have survived in Dacia as late as 
S70 A. D. The Dacians, too, do not appear to have disappeared 
suddenly or entirely out of Transylvania, where they continued 
a shepherd life for a long time. The Huns of Attila Kuun 
identifies with the Hiung-niu of Chinese annalists. Among 



3IO THt AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

the hordes of " Huns" were found, doublless, many of the Volga 
inhabitants, and some Magyars, albo. Between the Huns ot 
Attila and the Magyars ai Arpad a striking similarity existed 
Reminiscences of Altila have taken deep root in the Hun- 
garian people (the Thuroczi chronicle of 1490 is full of them, 
and they persist in the folk-lore of the Szekler). There is a 
Szekler proverb from Haromz^k: "The Szekler begat the Mag- 
yar." Much folk-lore indicates a continuance of the Huns in 
the Magyars, and folk-sage hasi it that Arpad conquered Hun- 
gary with the sword of Attila in his right hand. Indeed tht 
Huns were as little exterminated or disappeared cniirety, as 
did before them the Dacians, the Gepid^e aud the Avar). 
Gold objects dis..overed in 1799 at Nagy-Szent-Miklo's are said 
to have belonged to Attila himself, whose " palace " lay prob- 
ably near the town of Szeged, some four miles off. The Avars, 
who were conquered in 803 A. D., have still survivors in various 
parts of eastern Hungary, and form one of the chief elements 
of the Szekler. Another interesting feature of the Hungarian 
ethnology is the renascence of the Teutonic tribes after the 
downfall of the Huns: The Gepidx in Dacia, the Ostrogoths 
in Pannonia, and in parts of the latter country, the Gepidf 
also. Hither, in 521 A. D., at the call of Justinian, went the 
Longobardt. Kuun seems to minimize too much the physical 
and psychical differences between the Huns, Magyars and 
Avars. 

Inix)-Eukopean Origins. A noteworthy book, in somi: 
respects, is E. de Michel is's L' engine degli Indo-liuroffi {Tot\ao. 
1503, pp. vi,-69Q), to which Penka devotes a long review in the 
Mitteilungender Anthropologischen Gesellschaftin Wien (Vol. 
XXXHl, 1903, pp. 353-J58). According to de Michelis the 
primitive home of the Aryans was in that part of central 
Europe lying between the Danube on the west and south, the 
Carpathians on the north, and the Dnieper on the east. Here 
was formed the basic language of the Aryan stock, —the cen- 
ter of the Indo-European linguistic area lay in the region ol 
the middle Danube, and in the proto-Aryan period the fore- 
fathers of the speakers of the ji^^tm languages probably dwelt 
chiefly to the east, the ancestors of the i-f«/««-peoples to the 
west of this center. This situation was also favorable for the 
prehistoric relations of the Aryans and the Finns, with the re- 
sulting culture-influences. From thii center during the Bron« 
Age and at the beginning of the Iron Age, the I ndo- Europeans 
set forth into the neighboring countries (taking with them the 
custom of cremation) and Aryaniied the aborigines. Of the 
three basic European races (the small, brunet, dolichocephalic 
race of the Mediterranean; the tall, blond, dolichocephalic 
race of northern Europe; the medium brunet, brachycephalic 
race ol central and eastern Europe), de Michelis regards the 
last, or "Slavo-Celtic" type, as the "original Aryan." Physic- 



4 




ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTKS. 

lly, he thinks, this type is of Asiatic origin, and "not to be 
eparated from the great Turanian race " of that continent. On 
he transitional period bctwteii the paleolithic and neolithic 
eriods some Turanian tribes must havt entered Europe by way 
f Asia Minor, mixing with the northern and southern long- 
cads, given rise by modilicalion of the original Turanian type, 
3 the Sla^'onic-Celtic-Iranic type and the culture of the primi- 
ive Aryans. 

Against this theory Penka makes many objections: The 
ransformation of a "Turanian" people and language in the 
fay indicated is unreasonable. It is by no means certain that 
he primitive Aryans in the pro-ethnic period were acquainted 
fith copper. The primitive home of the Aryans nted not have 
oosisted of fertile land and steppes, for l[ngui^tlc data (the 
iifferences in the agricultural terms of the Aryans of Europe 
nd those of Asia) suggests an agricultural development in 
ilurope; the Asiatic Aryans, after entering that continent from 
!^urop<;, having given up (as a result of their steppe life) much 
( the original agricultural language. In the streams of the 
liddle Danube no esls are to be found, and the eel is a fish, 
vhich, judging from linguistic evidence, the primitive Aryans 
mew. The kitchen-middens of Denmark, which de Michelis 
ittributes to a b achyctphalic Mongoloid people. may,accord- 
ng to Sophus MiJlier, belong to the middle Stone Age, and 
epresent not so low a type of culture {i./. our American 
ndians) as has generally been assumed. They are not the 
'ery oldest relics of man in Scandinavia De Michelis's ob- 
ection to Scandinavia as the home of the primitive Aryans, 
hat the beech, a tree known to them, did not exist these in the 
»tone Age, has been disposed of by recent ( 1895) discoveries, 
'enka vigorously lupports his own theory that the old Danish 
gion was the primitive Aryan home. 



Moravian Arch-Colocy. In his Bdtraege sur Kcnnhiis lU-r 
'2uartdrzcit in Mdhrtn (Steinitz, IQ03). reviewed by Lissauer 
Z. f. Ethnol., 1904. pp. 168 170), Martin Kriz gives the results 
>f his long and extensive researches in the Predmost hill, 
lumeruus caves, etc., in Moravia, At Piedmost man and mam- 
nolh lived together during the Ice Age, during which period 
he mammoth met with a great catastrophe (snowstorm, 
lisease, or the like), causing the death of some 500 individuals, 
lian dwelt there before and lung alter the catastrophe, but 
inly in summer, — in winter he turned cave-dweller After the 
'redmost hill was abandoned by diluvial man, it remained un- 
nhabited, apparently, till occupied by Slavonic settlers in the 
listorical period. Immense numbers of animal bones have 
leen discovered at Predmost. The human remains and relics 
nclude bones of six individuals, over 3,000 stone implements, 
lesides many of bone, horn, and ivory; also pigments in a red 



^" 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



lines, I 
those 1 



sandstone vessel, a mammoth-rib ornamented with zigzag lines, 
dentalia, etc. The most important caves investigated are those 
of Kulna, Kostelik, Byciskala. etc. The last, from which such 
fine Hallstatt specimens hav; been abtained, was probably un- 
inhabitable in the diluvial period (both for animals and man), 
by reason of inundation. The human remains at Kulna include 
carved and engraved artefacts. Kriz is of opinion that diluvial, 
man arose in the high north, and first migrated southward wittm. 
the diluvial animals, and then wandered back north again tc=» 
exist down to the present as Lapp and Eskimo. 



Prehistoric Mining. In an interesting and well-illustrate «:d 
article on I'rekistmiseher Bergi>4m in Jen Alpen (Z. d. Deutsche m\ 
u. Oesterr. Alpenvereins, V'ol. XXXIII.. 1902), M. Much di^. 
cusses mining in the Alps in prehistor.c tiroes: Salt, coppc r, 
gold, iron, ana lead. Itwas salt, rather than the metals, accorcJ- 
ing to Much, that first led man to penetrate into the Alpine- 
valleys, The finds of stone implements at Hallstatt, where 
salt was obtained, seems to indicate that not until the later- 
Stone Age did man (the pi!e-dwellers) penetrate into these- 
valleys. Remains of ca. 400 B.C.tcsiify to the continuance of 
the Hallstatt salt-works. Remains of copper workings exist 
on the Mitterberg and the Kelchalp. The copper-workers of 
the Mitterberg were related to the Austrian lake- dwellers. 
The salt-workers and the copper- workers were the same peo- 
ple. Olshausen, following Herodotus, thinks gold-mining was 
practiced in the eastern Alps ( gold ornaments. — spiral rings,— 
are at least as old as the beginning of the second miltennium 
B. C). Iron was mined in various region* of the Alps during 
the whole of the last millennium B. C. Lead, to judge from 
finds in the grave-mounds of Frogg in Carinthia, was at the 
same time mined and used for purposes of ceramic decoration. 
A brief abstract of this article appears in the '■ Hessiscbc 
Blatter fur Volkskunde." Vol. IL. 1903, p. i lO. 





EDlTORlAb. 



POTTERY PORTRAITS. 

lave already shown that the prehistoric races of America 
were skillful in representing the human form in their works of 
art, for there are many sculptured human figures found on the 
continent. Some of theie are found on the Northwest coast 
which have been sculptured out of wood; others are found 
among the ruined cities of the Southwest, these arc sculptured 
out of Btone and arc generally covered with elaborate drapery, 
which shows the rich dress or costumes which were worn by 
the kirifjs and queens. There are also a few human images in 
this region which are quite rude in form and have little drapery 
upon them, and yet they show much skill, for they bring out 
some of the religious ideas which prevailed. They are idols 
and were designed to awaken fear, as they represent huge 
animals, such as crocodiles and tigers mounted on the backs of 
human beings, the combination being very peculiar and un- 
like anything found anywhere else in the world. 

These different specimens show that the American tribes 
had all reached a fair degree of advancement and skill in 
sculpture, for they are all finished in the round and bring 
out the different parts of the human form in their proper 
proportions. Some of them even give expression to the face, 
and even make the attitudes suggestive of thought. The native 
skill manifested by these so-called statues was not equal to that 
shown by the ancient Greeks, Romans and Egyptians, nor even 
that which was exercised by the Assyrians and Uabylonians, 
and yet there are many things about them which remind us of 
tho-e found in the far East. 

There is, however, one class of relics which have been found 
scattered over the continent, which is as interesting as any 
found elsewhere. We refer to the specimens of pottery which 
represent the human face, some of which were found in the 
ancient village sites of lower Canada, the state of New York; 
others in the mounds of Southern Ohio, Kentucky. Iowa, 
and Illinois; still others among the stone graves of Tennessee; 
others in the Gulf Stites and in Florida. The best specimens 
are those which were found in Peru by Mr. G. O. Dorsey for 
the Columbian Exposition in Chicago, and have been deicribcd 
in a pamphlet published by the Field Columbian Museum, a 
few specimen of which are shown in the plates given here- 
with. 

In reference to the entire series we would say that the pot- 
tery portraits are quite as interesting as the sculptured columns. 



3i€^ THi: AHtRZZAS AXTIQUA&IAX. 

for itty shcrw tiic iir^r^rt rii^cs cf advanccaent in the art of 
pzfZtcry riakir^. izid «: irc 5«.z:- time shov the difiFerent dc- 
gr-ccs of skil mrirn i-1 ti-c :ni>es exercised io expressing 
th'>ught ^=d in m^kio^ the human face si^gcstive of that 
the J^ht. It IS to r« sc ticec thai the pottery raries according 
tc locality, as well as arr^riin? to the character of the tribe 
am^ng which :i was iz'zzz. The iwtiery of the tribes which 
dwelt ia the fore>t rcgtzns cf upper and lomer Canada and the 
state of New York :s q.itc izrenor to that found in the valley 
cf the Ohio, hzz aming the stone graves of Tennessee. On 
the other hand, the p:tter>- which has been gathered on the 
village sites which are situated among the C>T>ress swamps of 
Arkansas, is suDerior to acv of those which have been men- 
tionec. but differs from those which have been found in the 
stone graves and alon^ the Gulf coast in nearly all respects 
The peculiarity cf this potter>-. is that it represents the objectf 
of nature, sjch as gourds, squashes, and various plants, occa 
sionaily the human form: but does not exhibit as many por 
traits as ar? found in other localities, though the specimens are 
worthy of all admiration. 

Now. it :< this diversity in tlie pottery which gives rise to 
much in'^uiry : Why wis there >o much difiference in the pot- 
tery of the different regions, and how comes it that the people, 
dwellin;^ ,n the remote regions, in out of the way places, should 
cxcell all others ? Tne answer is. perhaps, that they were 
famililiar with the objects of nature and took pleasure in imi- 
tating their shapes. Tney had. also, the opportunity of select- 
ing the most beautiful plants, and making these the objects of 
their admiration and as patterns on which they exercised their 
tasti*. In other words, they were artists who had gone as far 
as nature coulfi teach them. 

It is for this reason that their pottery vases, and other works 
of the kind, can be placed alongside of that of the best 
artists, which have been wrought into shape and been admired 
by persons of culture and taste everywhere. This only con- 
firm* what Hugh Miller, the gieat naturalist, stated in refer- 
ence to the similarity of the patterns of carriages and many 
other objects, which had secured the admiration of cultivated 
periplc, bein^^ found in the fossil shells and other creations 
which he had found hidden among the rocks. His explanation 
was that the same standards of beauty and ideas of grace, 
which the Creator has embodied in the work's of nature and 
hidden among the rocks, he has also bestowed on man, who 
was made in his imap^e; and it is a proof of his endownient 
that man is able to bring out these shapes, and embody them 
in his best works of art. May it not be then, that those who 
arc so " near to nature's heart," as are some of these un- 
trained children of the forest, are able to catch God's idea of 
l)canty and ^^race from seeing the works of God in their wild 
itate, and imitating their shape and form, and are able to 




POTTERY PORTRAITS. 319 

transmit the ideas of God to the most cultivated and favorite 
of his children. 

Now this is plain, and can easily be understood, but there 
is another fact which is obscure and difRcuit to explain. It is, 
that in America, where there were no such skilled artists as are 
found in the classic lands of the East, and no one to train 
the natives in any kind of art, there should be persons who 
could take the rude, simple lump of clay and mold it into such 
a shape, that it could ft present the human face, with all the 
variety and delicacy of expression embodied in pottery, in such 
a manner as to astonish us. 

There are, to be sure, a few cases where pottery masks have 
been made representing the faces of children, probably children 
who have just died. These vases are very natural, and on this 
account are quite touching, as childhood is always attractive, 
whether among the rude and wild tribes or among the moit 
cultivated specimens. In these specimens we see the faces of 
children as though they were asleep, their eyes are closed and 
their faces have the freshness and fullness seen in life. These 
may have been masks, and so can be explained without ascrib- 
ing particular skill to the person who made them. 

There are, however, specimens of pottery which have come 
to us from the regions of the remote West.— the Cliff- Dwellers 
and the Pueblo-^. These are not only beautiful and graceful in 
shape, but are covered with a great variety of ornaments, many 
of them in colors. They cannot be called portraits, though they 
represent the forms of animals and plants, in such a way as to 
excite our admiration. At the same time, they have a mass of 
symbolism covering the outside, which shows that the clouds 
and the mountains and the objects of nature were not only ad- 
mired but worshiped, and the religious ideas which were 
awakened by them have been stamped upon these frail vessels, 
so as to make them permanent. They are not so natural as 
those which have been spoken of, but they exhibit the ideas 
of the supernatural, and when studied and understood, they 
excite our admiration. 

There are. also, specimens which have come to us from the 
various parts of Central America, which reveal a great deal of 
taste, and show not only correct ideas of art but great skill in 
expressing those ideas. They elicit our admiration because of 
their graceful shapes, and because ihey represent the skill of 
artists who are unknown. The best specimens of all, or at 
least the most interesting and curious, are these which have 
come to us from an unknown race ir. Peru. They were found in 
the island of La Plata, thirty miles from Ecuador, and they 
are evidently prehistoric. A gold cup, gold and silver images, 
and bronze bells were found in the same island, which has been 
uninhabited since the days of history. The specimens arc nn- 
like any found in Peru or Ecuador, but are like those found 
among the Quichuas. The peculiarity which most interests us, 






THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 



ITIQt^AI 



ia that they represent the human face in all the variety of shape 
and expression which can be recognized among the living. 
The heads arc covered with strange ornaments, consisting of 
knobs and projections, some of ihcm resembling the rims of 
hats, but it is not the symbolism which so much interests us, 
as the expression given to the face. It is impossible to describe, 
or even to define, the intent of the artist, or to discover the 
object for which the specimens were made, but the skill is 
manifested in giving a great variety, and yet eluding us by the 
subtle expression hidden behind the strange shapes. These 
specimens vary from eight to twelve inches in height; the most 
of them are broken, and yet their peculiarities can be recog- 
nized in the fragments. 

We are to notice that there is a succession of districts along 
the Pacific coast in which the human figure is represented, Kach 
one chtracterizcd by different adornment! and different sym- 
bols; the skill of the native artists being devoted more and 
more to the effort to bring out the expression of the soul in the 
face, but the greatest triumph is secured in moulding the pot- 
tery vessels discovered in Peru. It will be understood, how- 
ever, that this triumph was gained as much by the progress of 
religious thought, as by the advance of art; as its effect is to 
bring out the soul from the midst of its mass of drapery and 
make it pervade the figure and overcome even the deadness c" 
the clay. 




EDITORIAls NOTES. 



Lord Avbbukv is the President of the Society of Aaliquaries. 

OssUAKtES found in Palestine are described by Miss Gladys Dickson in 
<hc Riliguary (or July. 

"ExGLisH MiDi«vAt. Figure Sculpture" is the subject of an 
arcicic by E, S. Pier in the ArchiUtural Rn-ievi. 

■' Tracks of Norse Mythologv in thb Isle of Man," with ten 
plates, was the subject of a paper read before the Ule of Man Antiquarian 

" Book Plates." The book plates of Horace Walpole, Joseph Priestly, 
md H. F. Bess borough, by Bartolo^zi, Have bt:i;n 00 exhibition at Hanover 
Square, London. 

Danish Ballots is the subject of an article in the Scottish Historical 
Review for July, by Prof. W, V. Kerr; also "The Scottish Ancestors," by 
President Roosevelt. 

" London SlciNS " is the subject of a series of articles by J. H. Mac- 
Michael in the English ^nZ/^Miirc- "English Society During the War of 
the Rotes" is, also, ttie subject treated by Alice E. Rndlaee in the same 
journal. 

Rome and India. Mr. R. Seui read a paper before the Royal Asiatic 
Society on the connection between Rome and India traced by means of the 
Roman coins. Many coins have been found in a district Irom which the 
Romans imported beryls. 

-The Beginnings of Egyptian Art" is the subject of a book 
published by Vromant & Co.. Brussels. The specimens represent the 
period from 7000 to 400a B, C. The articles appeared lirst in the Annuals 
of the Brussels Archteologiciil Society. 

Discoveries in Scotland, Prehistoric structures in pits have been 
found in Wigtownshire; a chambered mound, near Stranine>,s, Orkney; six 
small cairns in Pituffshire; stone circles in northeast Scotland; and stone 
ciils and urns at Long Croft. Lauderdale. 

Israel in Egypt. The mention of Israel along with Caanan, Aske- 
lon, and Gezer on the stela unearthed by Flinders Petrie. at Merenpteh, 
near Thebes, in i8g6, makes it certain that in those davs the people dwelt 
in Syria, and necessitates a revision of our ideas on the sojoura and exodut. 

The Hellenic Society htld a meeting of its twenty-fifth anniver- 
lary, July 5th; Sir Rich»rd Jebb in the chair. Professor Gildersleeve. of 
Baltimore, was present. Mr. Gemoadrus, Greek Minister, dwelt on the in- 
fluence of Greeii literaiure and Greek art on the culture o( modern timei. 

Ancient Bell. The oldest bell in Ihe United Stales is on exhibition 
at St. Louis. The bell was brouKht from Spain by Father Juan de Padilla, 
who accompanied Coronado to New Mexico. It was taken toGranQuivira, 
miitt't it was hung in a chuch: from there it was taken to Algodones. The 
hell weighs exactly iq8 pounds. It was cast A. D: 1355. 

Traps, An article upon the traps of the American Indians is published 
by Otis T. Mason in the Proceedings of the Am. Assoc, for Ihe Adv. of 
Science for li>oo. In Ihe article the eighteen areas are pointed out. Three 
kinds of traps are mentioned,— land traps, water traps, and air traps, —alto, 
enclosing traps, arresting traps, and killing traps. 1 be enclosing traps are 
fubdivided into four classes — pen, cage, pit, and door; arresting traps 
into mesh, hook, noose, and clutch; killing trap! into wait, point, and edge. 
The geographical distribution of the different kinds of traps is also dwelt 



3Z: THE AMERICAS ANTIQUARIAN. 

Tme SzmismATLC Socikty of New York kas recently been merged 
lots the H jto r x Al Soocty ot Sev York, and its collection will be pre- 
served :a the rooais oi t&e Society. 

Tnx Hbb&kw Gmos Tkis stream is not known in Ansyrian, thouglh 
there was a Samertaa word mraiing some kind ot reed. The Gibon, we 
are coid. "^ cocpassech the whole l^d of Knsh* or the Kassi«'* the name 
ander which the BabTtcnxaas were known in the age of the Tel-el-Amama 
ta Diets. Aaicfij the' earlv Babylonian names are some collected by Dr. 
Fiaches^ aazies of the desaed rivers of the coontry. 

Trs Greek transUtioa of Geoests. the itldest known text, has been on 
eihib&Qoa at the UoiTerstr Coile^^ ExcaTaboos at Beni-Hassen, begun 
VOL tQ02. are now cocpteted. The era of mummification had not diawned. 
The w^»ien sarccpha^Tis painted with the eres of Osiris, and with little 
bodies of rirers aad sail:a< beats*— oarsmen still dincinit to their oars,— i« 
4.00C years o^d. These gire a tttmI cbmpse of the social life in Egypt at 
that eariy date. Cai.drea had dolls, with long braided hair and neddaces, 
at that tisie. 

■ I 



BOOK REVIEWS. 



Traditions v^f the Arafaho. Collected under the Auspices of the 
Field Co. jinbiAn M.isc'aru aad the American Mnseam of Natural His- 
tory. i>\ George A. Dorsey, Carator. Department of Anthropologyy 
Fnfid Co.-:aib:ia Maseam. and Alfred L. Kroeber, Department of 
Anthroro.o^v. I'nirersitv of California. Chicago: Field Columbian 
Museum. Publication No. S:. Vol. V. 

Tkauitions of the Osage. By George A. Dorsev, Curator, Department 

ot Aathropov^gv. Fic.d Columbian Museum. Chicago: Fiela Colum- 
bian Museum. FubliCAtion No. S>. Vol. VI., No. i. 

The Oraihi Towamer CEREiiONV. By H. R. Voth. Chicago: Field 
Columbian Museum. Fubiicatioo No. 6i, Vol. 111., No. 2 

The Stanley McCokwicr Hopi Expeditiom. By George A. Dorseyi 
Curator, Department ot Anthropology, Field Columbian Museum, 

Chicajjo: Field Columbian Museum, Publication N0.61, Vol. III., N0.2* 

• 

The activity of thr Field Columbian Maseum is illustrated by these 
pamphlets or bo^>k$. In !>?i. there appeared several publications, one by 
Mr. H. R. Voih on the * Oraibi Powamer Ceremony," also another by Mr. 
George A. Dorscy on ** Arch.ecio^ical Investigations on the Island of Li 
Plata. Ecuador.** In 100^, *' The Traditions of the Arapaho," bv George A. 
Dorscy and .\lfred L. Rroeber: also "The Traditions of the Osage/* by 
George A. Dorsev. auvl '• The Traditions of the Crows," by F. D.Sims. In 
1904, *• The Traditions of the Osage." by George A, Dortey. Other pamph- 
lets are forthcoming. 

These books are all very useful, for they show the character and thought 
of the native races of America, and serve to perpetuate the mythology, 
traditions, relics and art of the different tribes. The domestic life and cus- 
toms are not so much dwelt upon as the religious beliefs. This is well, for 
the beliefs will change, but the customs are perpetuated, at least they can 
be remembered. It is remarkable that a greater rariety of customs ard 
beliefs prevail among the aborigines of America than the natives of any 
other country, for each separate tribe has a religious system of its own and 
a system of symbolism peculiar to itself. 

These reports will be valuable to the student of comparative religion 
and comparative art, as well as the ethnologists and m3rthologists. Thanks 
are due to unknown parties who furnish the means to make possible these 
investigations. Chicago is becoming the center of great institutions, and 
the Field Columbian Museum is as progressive and as important as any, 
ibongh its work is done quietly and faithfully. 



^^^^^^^ BOOK IREVIEWS, 313 

The Arapahos, like the Comanche* and the Apaches.have always been 
regarded as a warMce tribe and very dit^cult to civiliir, and one reason for 
this has been the influence of the pnesls and medicine men and native 
superstitions and religious customs. This collection of myihs, which bas 
been made by two separates parties, rather confirms the supposition. 
There have been modifications of their myths, tor domestic animals and 
objects which were introduced by the while men have a prominent part in 
tbe stories Ibat are lold. We call them stones, rather than myths, for there 
is a distinction; the myths probably come from prehistoric times, tbe stones 
belong to historic times. The work of collecting has been well done, some 
migbt say. too well done, for there is no absolute neccessily for giving such 
bawdy stories to the public. Certainly not as they are lold in the camps, 
though the entire eliminaiion of them wo'jid detract from the volume ai a 
faithful collection. The Arapabo traditions are much cleaner than those 
of the Tshimshians and Kaihlameis. It seems strange, however, to be 
reading about calves and cows and domestic animals as going through all 
tbe transformations with the wild animals in thi:se traditions. This shows, 
however, that tbe Arapaboes are as thoroughly pagan as Ihey ever were, Ibe 
fabric of iheir mind and character has not been touched by Christianity, or 
even civilization. 

CoNCEKMNG Book-Plates. A Hand book (or Collectors By Zella 
Allen Dixson, A. M., Member o( Ex-Ltbris Verein, London; Exlibris- 
Verem, Berlin; Oeslerreichische £x-Libris-Gesellschaft, Vienna; So- 
ciete Francaise des Colleclionneurs d'E\ Libris, Pans; Ex-Libris-Club 
■■ Basilea," Basic, First Edition, with llluslratiotis and Plates. Chicago; 
Published by the Wisleni Cottage Press; 1903. 

Thisisaiiinteresiingbook, and one which shows great painstaking nn the 
part of the author, It appears that book plates were origirally coals cf 
arms, and were placed upon books as signs of ownership. Tber were pre- 
cautions against books being stolen or kept, but at the present time this 
peculiar use of them is forgotten, and they have become not only the sub- 
jects of antiquririan study, but objects which are admired by most book- 
lovers. Many individuals scattered all over the world are 6Uinii their leisure 
lime with pleasure, and their minds with valuable information concerning 
art, history, lileraluie, geography, heraldry, genealogy, and blographv, 
through the study of this most interesting subject. Libraries, museums, 
and learned societies vie with each other in the size and rarity of the col- 
lections they offer as a field of research. 

The Art of Pitti Palace. By Julia de Wolf Addison. Boston: L. C 
pjge A: Co. 

This IS a beautiftil book and contains many beautiful pictures repro- 
duced tiy photographic processes from the lamous paintings contained in 
the Pilti Palace. There is great variety in these paintings, some of them 
relate to Bible scenes and characleis, and are by the old painters, such as 
Fra Bartolomeo, Titian, and Raphael. Others are secular subjects. One 
which is especially valuable to students of history, represents the "Con- 
spiracy of Catiline." The paintings are in different halls, but it is singular 
thai the halls have such heathen names as Saturn. Jupiter, Venus and Mars, 
and yet contain such paintings on Chnstain subjects as ''The Vision of 
Eiekiel,"" Saint Peter Raising the Widow Tabitha." and "The Women 
Carrying the Body of Christ." This last painting by Fra Baitolomeo is 
one of toe most affecting in the whole collection, as it portrays the feelings 
of attachment of the women to the body of Christ. Nothing could be mote 
expressive than this picture. It alone is worth the price of the book. 

The only heathen painting, or, more properly, classic, is of Venus and 
Vulcan with Cupid, by Tintoretto, It is a very beautiful picture, and 
nicely reproduced. Ii is a luxurv furnished at a low price, which the pub- 
lisher has placed before the public. Other viitumes are to follow. 







-.i-j^ 



9 ftaktm^riBB.' 



tothe 



Etrso- 
Printing 



Tiuf cmr- TTinnrtf « ii*^\nrf tt "3ii? DssrnscioB of Ac abtar i g ii ud pot- 
fc tbr *3£ivi>rx .-unsr feats xv H*. H. rsnixDCSL mad b an exceedingly 
Tmic&Tii* r.mr'iivxnfni u -ms sinirT:. Xr rSiiises s a arcisK ajid itnd«r- 
fismos zsMt TscuK IE iurr >.TTr"nzgi scz m& •ai u r xn%iL !-T as Mtm ic Irricg. He 
is «c t:i.-L?.«i=zc: ir*i- siijt t. am. >? mc Dgstf-nnanc «k ickcfs for draving the 
fliarkm^ sni^vx n '=xks T».c:2=r> Snmf ic txic tuocs i c ^jiuduo e the pottery 

Tue t-:t.iccr«in: .r natri zc "zns: faieniiiesi^ vcre 3Bnde br fnirmte indi- 
rjttxA^, im^m^r iifn Z^n Saiss r. T^xnsanu Oareace T* Moore, Prof. 
Pcaa-L i-Lc 'm ♦. Viimtn-aai- A^zusir rt« ipi i iiii ■! erf imtterT vessels, 
we woi^jC -mrtcor ii»:»=** fnci -^rcKi^a^ acv m cbe LteveBpcsn Academy, 
s a. zT^sr T-tTjrrr it sljo^s. £&£ SiZtme c£ tbeaa are Terr beaatifal 

r»-z:.-*rr/Tii- ncire ic "liifai 'TTi^it.rxe •£ s^e-TaL erf govrds, of fishes, and 







P. TkrBStoo. 

gairkcred bf Hr. Oairnce T. 

tk tke cmgraviBirs ci an eagle, 

TT-im. t jzr*!^: xL^q-ae bottles vitk strange omaments; 

Zfi re rre od^aoe «itk bwnan figures in relief; 



. c*-; 



p^-tieri »^*.t. stin-'ti rfri-^irccs t^ss^ Is in the siiape of lily blossoms, the 
b">tv,rr,* :. r^. -j -Ji-t -.— i >: 'r«: • 5 :: el ircrate decorations representing 
fei:r:*rr5. Tr,« p-.t-rnr :: ih* Irrcircs rrbes ts rather inferior. A few 
tp'T': rr.*:'.! i.-ik'. z^ 'z-^z'£. T*5?<lf- ard oce rase, from Colchester, Ver- 
r/i'/*'.', * 1. .1 .2 ^5:iT:;i. v rri it:: -1 Tr.ere are a few vases from Ohio; one. 
wr..'-.:. wii fc I'-i '. a r.:.- i .:: Ross CrcntT, is verv symmetrical. There 



if^ i 



'^y 4. 



5 ^- 



< 1 



'[".'.-: /ii-:-; ■*.1 ch ..-• 



Nf anCins and Pawnees, which finish the bock. 
:o5t i-'.-^res: :i5 are those which imitate the human 
h^-k^., *\*'^K ^.*:t':. \- <t ponra-ts, and are so iife-Iikc that some have thought 
ii'.rv *:f*: '..x^it 4i ce^tr. mask?. az.d afterwards worked into the shape of a 



f» ifri^r. ?.^id. Tr. 



Ar»* ^ 



erta r..y very interestmg specimens. 



KMHf.'fKf Tj-xt-. By Fraaz B«:>as. Washington, D. C: Smithsonian 

(ri-.r.'iriOfi, fi jreau of EthnoI')ijv Bulletin No 26. 



'{ 'A'A .i\\ \ 



Ikxts. 1>v P^anz Boas. Washin^on. D. C: Smithsonian 



Ir. -.firutiori, fiurea 1 of Ethnology Bulletin No. 27. 

n.» -.r two Looks hnnj^ out the peculiarities of the language and 
f:\,fi i-iiiy rii'- f.'-riiiiaMties of the character of the tnbes situated on the 
.•.'<rf hw -,f ''/-i-,i. It i> well known that the language is very difficult to 
|,r'»»i'Hifi' '-, ,j(ifl also rliffirijit to translate, but no such difficulty exists 1" 
f. (rr* M' r \i> fhr sof lal f liarart'^r and habits of the people. The myths o 
II, r «lilf. f'-rif iril)/i .\rv ;^iven in th*f texts and are translated by Dr. Boas 
.I'i'l III* (I .«r^ < t>\\^\i\t-rK(\ in abstracts, in such a way as to be easily read an 
niKlrf-iifi wi. I ti«- ,ib .irar t*> show that the myths or traditions vary accor 






BOOK REVIEWS. 325 

lag to the Iribe^ and localitie*. Those of the TaJmihians ate much hetler 
reading than those of the Kathlamel. Neither are very elevating or especi- 
ally eniertaining. They bring out ihe habits of the people and introduce 
us to such surroundings as one tindi among savages. 

The myths have to do with the animals, such as lea lions, seals, por- 
poises, sturgeon, beaver. raccooD, otter, bears and deer; shells of all kiuda, 
clams, oysters, crabs and mussels. Certain monsters are brought Iti light 
resembling whales. Animals talk as they do in /F.top's fables; they live JD 
bouses and seem to be human, yet have animal forms. There is no such 
beautiful conception of animals and birds, as we find in the mythologies of 
the Eastern tribes, for many of the myths are postively vulgar, and Ihe 
language is hithy: and yet "transformation " is as common on the North- 
west coast as in the Eastern tribes. It is lortunate that the work of trans- 
lating the mvths bas fallen into the hands o! one who has exercised good 
judgment and put them into language — the best that could be used under 
-■■ " " ■" 'I fails to hide the filthy and vulgar habits and 



History of thk Moorish Eiipihb in Europe. By P. Scott Phila- 
delphia: J. P. Lippincotl & Co.; I904. 

Three bulky volumes of about seven hundred pages each are devoted 
to the history of ihe Moors. They are people who nad far more to do with 
the destiny of Northern Africa and Southern Europe than with America. 
Thr Moors became Monammedans. and the rise of this religion has had a 
great effect on the history of the world. The Moors also, along with the 
Arabs, had sorne intfuenee upon the rise of letters. The library of Aly- 
aitea was undoubtedly the greatest repository of learning which had 
existed in Europe up to Ihe yearq6i: still the triumph of tbe Musselmen 
filled the warehouses from the plundered churches, and the inmates of Ihe 
monasteries were rxposed for sale in the niarkets. 

The author says that the reverence entertained by the Spanish Christ- 
ians for the Sepulchre of St. Jamcs exceeded that which tbe won fanatic 
Musselman regarded the prophets at Medina. The savage instincts of the 
Berbers were indulged in by all, by torture and all the arts ol the most 
exquisite cruelly. Thus we gel glimpses of the condition of Europe at this 
time, when Moors, Arabs, and Berbers were active, but the Anglo-Saxons 
of North Europe were In a passive condition, and yet were getting ready to 
fill the whole of Europe with a lasting and growing civilization. These 
(acts come out slowly while reading this book, for it is voluminous and the 
progress oi thought is slou*. though thorough and insliuclive., 



Natick Dictionary. Bv James Hammond Trumbull. Washington, 
D. C : Bureau of .\mcricnn ElhnoloKy. Smithsonian Institution. 

Mr, Trumbull was, before he died, said to be the only man in the world 
that could read the Bible which Ruv. John Eliot translated Into the Indian 
tongue, and which is now to scarce that it requins a fabulous price to buy 
:|. He was next to Dr D. G. Brinton in his command of the Indian lan- 
j^uages, though Vr. W. W. Tooker was and is a good scholar in thai direc- 
tion, and Mr, A. S, Gaschet is. perhaps, superior to all. 

The dictionary is a monument to Mr. Trumbull's industry and learn- 
ing. The language has not been so useful as one mlKhl expect. For the 
history and mythology of th*e tribes which spoke It became known to Ihe 
whites by means of social Intercourse, and yet as a contribution to Ameri- 
can linguistics it is valuable. It is fortunate that the Ethnological Bureau 
has secured the manuscript and published it. It is very likely that as 
archsulogiltsincr>;ase in number and learniog.tthe dictionary will be studied 
and will be very useful, especialiv in comparing tbe Algonkia with other 
languages which are spoken on this continent. 



I 



lM 



3i6 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 

Pennsylvania. A Primer by Barr Fcrrce, Secretary of the Pcnmsylvania 
Historical Society. New York: Leonard Scott Co. 

This is a historj- of Pennsylvania, written from a geo|^raphical and 
ethnographical standpoint, with the archaeology left out It contains many 
sketches about the Indians and the early settlers, and hat many maps and 
cuts representing the houses of the old settlers. Any antiquarian would be 
interested in it. 



History vs. The Whitman Saved Oregon Story. By William I* 
Marshall. 

This is written in support of the criticism made by Prof. Borune, and hi 
answer to the defence ot the books by Barrows, Oregon, and Nixont on how 
Marcus Whitman saved Oregon. The literature on the subject it becoming 
exhaustive, but does not altogether convince either party to the ditpute. or 
settle the (juestion. It is certainly true that Marcus Whitman went to 
Oregon and had an influence in the settlement of that distant country and 
gave an impetus to the establishmet of right institutions. 



Journal de la Society Ues Americanistes de Paris. Num^ro- 
Dcdio Par la Socictc a I'occasiou de L* Exposition Univcrsellc de Saint 
Louis aux Academies et Socicicssavantesdes EtatsUnisde Am^riqae. 

This journal describes the visit of Lesrur to the United States in 1778. 
It is especially timely in connection with the exposition at St.'Louit. at it 
gives a view of the country as it was at that time. The editor. Dr. G. T. 
Hamy, has funiishtd a portrait of Leseur, and various cuts and platet 
which show th.: condition of the country and the size of the towns and 
cities of that time. The maps show that nearly all the villages have grown 
to be cities, and reveal the growth of the country from small beginnings. 
Memphis seems to have been a Ittle hamlet, as was also Natchetz. The site 
of Cincinnati, espt-cially Walnut Hills, had, according to the picture, not a 
single house. The author was very thoughtful in thus presenting these 
pictures to the American public, enabling them to see the contrast between 
the early and present condition of the country. 

Vatican Manl'sckipt. A Reproduction and a Digest. By Due de Loabat. 

New York: Museum (^f Natural History. 

The first i)art treats of the skies, the planets, the past and future epochs 
of the world. The second part is an astrological or divinity calendar, re- 
cording the divisions of the sacred period of 260 days. The third part it 
historical, j;ivinjj the names of the Aztec kings of Tenochtitlan and the 
dates of thrir reigns, with pictographs of important events. TTiis Codex is 
a copy on Kuroi>c:an paper of pictures made by Mexican painters shortly 
after the Conquest. The copvjst was a Dominican monk, redro Las Kias, 
The work was probably introduced into the Dominican Library about 1570, 
althouf^h the !ir>i mention (»f it appears in a catalogue of 1596. It was 
copied bv Lord Kin^sb()rouk»]i in his j^reai work. 

The Fejevary Codrx is a document which throws much light upon the 
ancient civilization of the Nahuas. It is a pictorial history which relates to 
civil and rellj^iou^ matter*;, and was kept by the priests carefully, so as to 
escape th- hands of the Spanish iconoclasts. It takes it name from the 
celebrated Fejevary to whom it once belonged. It was presented to the 
Liverpool Free Public Museum by Joseph Mever. It is printed on four 
strips of parchment made of deer skin, about six and eight-tenths inches 
wide and of different leniilhs; they are pasted together, making a strip I2J4 
feet lon^. which is folded into the shape of a fan, after the fashion of ancient 
books. The pictures are painted on both sides. Edward Seler maintains 
that one side is devoted to the guardians of the night, and the other to the 
guardians of the day. 



riiE 




^txlirj 



mj^xxcun J:xntxQxx^xxmx 



^OL. XXVI. November and Deckmber. 1904. No. 6 



I ■ . 



:HE PERUVIAN ASTERISMS AND THKIR RKLATION 

TO THE RITIAL.* 

BY STANSBURY HAGAK. 
SscritAry of the Department of Archaeology, Brooklyn Institute of Arts end Sciencei. 

When the Spaniards entered Peru the}' fuiuid that the 
people celebrated certain festivals ^vhich were re])eated 
.nnually, one each month. These festivals dilTered little 
ither from year to year, or as observed In Cuzco and Quito. 
There were four principal festivals, the dates of which were 
letermined by the solstices and equinoxes, and ei^ht minor 
cstivals distributed amonj^st the intervening^ months. It is 
irobable that when the conquistadores arrived, the dates of 
he major festivals were determined by landmarks, some 
natural, some artificial; so distributed alonjjf the eastern 
lorizon as to mark the x>oint of sunrise at the equinoxes 
.nd solstices. Dr. Fewkes tells us that b}' a similar system 
aarking all the months, the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico 
.nd Arizona still determine the dates of their monthlv fes- 
ivals, with remarkably slij^^ht variation. Many of the early 
rriters refer to columns used for this purpose, both at Cuzco 
.nd Quito; but they differ radically as to the number of these 
:olumns and their location. (Jarcilasso states that the 
]!uzco columns existed as late as the year ir)()0, but no trace 
d them has been seen by later travellers. However, if we 
•uppose them to have consisted partly, at least, of natural 
andmarks located some distance from the city, the con- 
usion with respect to them is not astonishing'', nor is it 
itrange they have not been found. 

Evidently this system of time measures was preceded bv 
he simpler observation of the rising and settinj^ of con- 
;picaou8 groups of stars. At first, primitive man seems 
generally to have made use of the Pleiades for this purpose, 
because, as Mr. Haliburton has shown, they were so located 



• TrvM papers read before the Congres des Americanistei, Stuttgurt, 1904; and thr Con* 
^ Art* and Sciiocee, St. Louis, 1904. 



530 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

as to easily mark the approach of the two a^cultural 
seasons, the rainy and the dry. This was certainly the basis 
of the primitive calendar of Peru. Later observations 
passed from this single asterism to conspicuous ^oups 
lying^ along the course of the moon, and thus a lunar zodiac 
was created. This in turn became solar when thought and 
observation had sufficiently advanced to realize that the sun 
by day passed over the same course as the moon by night 
The division of the solar course into twelve-month periods, 
also implies an attempt to coordinate the solar and lunar 
years; but again, when we approach the Peruvian calendar 
there is great confusion and contradiction. The explanation 
which seems best to reconcile the conflicting statements is 
that the Peruvians actually observed the equinoxes and sol- 
stices by means of the landmarks already described and 
thus divideil their year into four seasons, the names of 
which have been recorded They then subdivided these 
se;\sv>ns into three months, the first two arbitarily consist- 
ing of thirty days, the third, of the remaining period. They 
commenced at. or immediately after sunset, and continued 
for an indor.nite time. 

Now, what was the basis of the ritual of these festivals? 
Whenever the date of a festival is determined by a direct 
reference to a celestial body, we may be certain that there 
is an astrv^nomical element present in the myth or legend; 
as well as in the ritual pertaining to it. The festival was 
or:s:;nated to mark the season for some purpose important 
to acriculture, or some other department of human labor, 
a:\d :'u^ ritual seeks to induce conditions favorable to the 
end towarvis which that labor is directed, while the myth 
|H rson-.ties the natural forces involved, and allegorizes the 
par: which they play. The Peruvians believed that every 
l;vin^ thin^ uinni earth— and every object was regarded as 
^H^sst ssiuiT spirit or life — reflected in form and all other 
c:)aravteristics, the attributes of its prototype which exists 
iu\ isibly in the sky. That prototype they called mama, or 
mother, and if. in a certain portion of the sky, a stellar 
i:rv>up was v^bserveii to suggest the form of some terrestrial 
object, it was explained as due to the predominant influence 
o! the mama of that object in that portion of the sky. For 
example, this idea may be found to-day among the Indians 
on the upjvr waters of the Amazon. They also give to the 
pi>^Totyiv the name of ''mother,*' and many of their con- 
stellations are identical with those of the Peruvians. In 
loss detinite form the same idea is also found among the 
tnU^s of Xorth America. In the Orient it is developed in 
the noble phiKvsophy of Plato, but attains its climax in the 
ll\ndu diH trine of the Divine Motherhood; in fact, the con- 
cept is of world-wide distribution. From this Peruvian sys- 
tem of the mamas, it followed that the mama of the llamas, 



THE PERUVIAN ASTERISMS. 331 

for example, was thought to control that portion of the sky 
where a celestial object — in this case a dark spot in the Milky 
Way— suggested the form of the llama, and for that reason 
was called by its name The llama asterisra was, therefore, 
described as watching over and caring for the welfare and 
increase of its terrestrial descendants, and petition* were 
addressed to it by those who stood in need of its good offices 
on behalf of their flocks. In primitive times it was thought 
necessary to explain to this mama, as exactly as possible by 
means of pantomine, the nature of the desired boon, hence 
the ritual. 

In addition to its usual aspect, however, another element 
operated to powerfully influence the location of these mamas. 
Probably long before the solar zodiac had been recognized, 
the concept of the influence of the celestial prototype 
created a tendency to attribute any seasonal increase in 
the importance of a terrestrial object to the predominance 
of its mama in the portion of the sky which was conspicu- 
ous at that time. For example, the great profusion of the 
conspicuous and beautiful cantuta llowers {periphragmios de- 
piiidnts) in Peru during the month of June, seems to have 
led to the identification of the Cantut asterlsm with another 
dark spot in the Milky Way. which rises nearly at sunset 
during this month. So seasons, as well as form, deter- 
mined the position of the Peruvian asterisms, and from this 
cause arose a series of asterisms which denoted seasonal 
concepts when in opposition to the position of the sun. The 
course of the moon could not be coordinated with the sea- 
sonal changes, but gradually as the sun's path alongthe zodiac 
began to be recognized, and, as it became known that the orb 
was passing by day through the asterlsm six signs distant 
from that which rose in the East at sunset, a solar cult sprang 
up. which modified the purely stellar .system of the mamas 
by teaching that the influence of these prototypes was 
greatly strengthened by, or even entirely due to the near 
presence of the solar ruler of the sky, Consistently with 
this modification, there arose a new series of asterisms, the 
mamas of which were believed to exert their strongest in- 
fluence on earth when in conjunction with the sun, instead 
of in opposition to it. This last stage had been reached in 
Peru long before the arrival of the Spaniards, but traces 
of the older system remained. In some cases it had, per- 
haps, been found ditticult or impossible to imagint amongst 
the stars in conjunction with the sun, an object of satisfac- 
tory form to represent the required seasonal concepts, and 
here the oppositional asterism had been retained, although, 
by a kind of astronomical fiction, it was regarded as exert- 
ing its influence from the position of conjunction. A change 
of a similar nature seems to be indicated in the Accadian 
and other calendars. 



332 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

The astronomical myths and ritual naturally followed 
the calendar changes, and the festivals at first connected 
with the asterism crossing^ the meridian at midnight, were 
transferred to the opposite asterism through which the sun vias 
passing at the time of the celebration, but one trace of the 
purely stellar system remained in the beginning of the rites 
after sundown. 

Our knowledge of the Peruvian asterisms is derived from 
three main sources, the star-chart of Salcamayhua, the plan of 
the city of Cuzco, which was supposed to reflect the celestial 
plan, and the lists of asterisms given by the early writers.* 
These lists are, however, rather brief, and few of the stars and 
constellation^ named are identified. 

The commencement of the Peruvian year is involved in the 
.same confusion that surrounds the calendar. The preponder- 
ance of evidence seems to indicate that it began at the Decem- 
ber solstice with the celebration of the most important of the 
festivals, known as the Caprachay, or Festival of the Beard; or, 
as the Coapac Rasmi. or Principal Festival. During this 
month the sun is passing through our sign of Capricornus. 
The corrrspoiuling Peruvian asteii.-^m is called Nuccu, the 
Heard, and Cayau Cnchi, the Footprint. It comprises the stars 
Y. 5 K. 2 of Capricorn and a group of fainter stars in the east- 
ern part of that constellation, which, all toget-;ier, form a figure 
cpiite readily suggesting its Peruvian names. Those names 
refer direcily to the widespread myth in which the sun, then 
at the height ot his jjower in the southern hemisphere, is 
figured as Capra. the-Hearded One, a man in the prime of life, 
who marks the zenith of h\'^ strength by impressing the print 
of his foot upon a rock. As the symbolism of the myth is 
directly associated with the sun. we find that the constellation 
is actually that through which he is passing. At this time the 
sun WHS said to turn back his steps. But as it was observed 
that at the solstices for several days he hardly moved either 
north or south at his rising, he was regarded as resting. Simi- 
larly on earth overyone was required to rest from labor during 
this month, and to devote themselves to ceremonial dances in 
which the participants wore masks with long beards, and to 
processions in which the upper orders, who at other times wore 
sandaN, walked in bare feet, like the common people. 

In February, the Aquarius month, the sun entered the Peru- 
vian sign known by the names, Mama Cocha, Mother of 
Waters, and Chatjuill Chaca, Eagle Bridge. It was associated 
with the aquilla or water jar. The Water Mother was figured 
as a sacred lake located in the Southern Fish and the Crane; 
the Bridge, as the narrow lofty bridge of souls which spanned 
the river of death, like one of the swaying suspension bridges 
of rope which spanned the Andean torrents, the passage of 

- ^ *Sc« the Auihor's paper <■ the " St^Har Chart •( Salcamayhua," Congrcs Anicri« 
«anistei, Parts (1900) and " Cuzco, the Celestial City," Ongress Am , Ntw York, iqoa. 



THE PERUVIAN ASTERISMS. 



333 



which was terrifjing and at times really dangerous. The 
a^te^is;I1 of this bridge is found in the darl< band which spans 
the Millcy Way, the Celeitial River, in the Sails and Keel of 
Argil, opposite Aquarius. The month of February marks the 
height of the rainy season in the Andes, and the rivers are in 
flood, so that the power of the Mother of Waters was then 
most conspicuously displayed. The second festival, held during 
this month.- was called th? Ccapac Cocha, or Ruler of the 
Waters, and consisted of a ceremonial offering to the Mother 
of Waters. After sunset, at a moment probably fixed by the 
rising of some star, a llama was sacrificed to Mama Cocha, 
with a prayer to her evpr to send her waiers, so that they might 
nourish the coming crops and give food and drink to her sup- 
pliants. The ashes of all the burnt offerings ol the previous 
year were then thrown into the sacred stream of the Huatanav. 
to be carried to the bosom of the Mother of Waters in the un- 
known East. I'hey were followed down stream as far as the 
bridge over the Sacred River at Ollantaytambo. some thirty 
miles from Cuzco. The city was supposed to be purified by 
this ceremony, just as the rains of the month purified the land 
by carrying off the decaying matter. And the Sacred River was 
the terrestrial type of the Milky Way, the Celestial Stream. 

March, the Pisces month, seems to have been represented by 
two asterisms, one called the Terrace of the Granaries or the 
Doves, a name of the Pleiades. It was figured as a kind of 
net with numerous meshes, and also bore the name of the 
Ccuricancha. or Golden Place, the district in which stood the 
principal temple of Cuzco. It is innpossible to determine 
whether it actually represented the Pleiades, which have no 
obvious connection with this sign, or merely referred to them 
because of some imagined analogy or relationship. But we 
may note in passing that, for some unexplained reason, the 
Pleiades teem to have been associated with this sign in the 
Orient The other aaterism is called Pichu. the Tie or Knot, 
by which name the month itself was also known. Its most 
general use was to describe fishes enclosed in a net or basket, 
and the myth describing the origin of fishes seems to be con- 
nected, both with the Pleiades and with this sign. 

On the terraces of the Colcampata the first maize was 
annually sown by the Inca during this month, and that ruler is 
then said to have ceremonially ploughed a furrow with a 
goMen plough. Hence the ritual seems to have typified the 
rebirth or renewal of vegetation after the subsidence of the 
heavy rains of the preceding month. The details of the typi- 
cal fish myths of America and other continents reveal a sym- 
bolism based upon that very rebirth or renewal. 

Aries, the April sign, was known in Peru as Katu Quilla, or 
Market Moon, and Quilla Pata, or Kneeling Terrace, both 
names referring to a grouo of dark spots in the Southern 
Milky Way, extending from Centaurus to Scorpio. Then the 



3>4 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

early crops were harvested and borne home upon the backs ol 
the llamas. The festival was called Ayrihuay, or that of th< 
Axe, and referred to the reaping of these crops. An important 
sacrifice of llamas also took place at this time, accompanied b) 
a petition for a good harvest and an offering of llama wooL 

Taurus was represented by the Pleiades as Pirua or Collca 
the Granaiies, and by Tupa Taruca, the Pasturing Stag, th< 
Hyades and /. and / of Taurus. The Pleiades governed th< 
crops and the harvest, and, indeed, were supposed to have 
created them; while the stag, which in May made frequent in- 
cursions into the grain fields, became the natural symbol of the 
harvest feaster. The Ayrihuay festival was held during this 
month, the word meaning, '* a sack filled with the harvest.' 
The crops, which had been previously reaped, were now de- 
posited in the granaries, under the presiding care of the aster- 
iim whose name they bore, and. prayers were offered for theii 
preservation therein. The ceremonies concluded with a har- 
vest home festival, in which the dancers were dressed to repre- 
sent the turucas, or deer. Drunkenness, apparently tolerated 
at all the festivals, was especially prevalent at this. 

Gemini was called Camach Pacha, Time of Creation, from 
Camani. 1 create, and Huaca Puncu, the Sacred Gate. The 
word Huaca is probably derived from Huauque, double, also 
the brother of a brother. The former asterism was depicted 
as a man and woman, evidently Manco Ccapac and Mama 
Oello, the mythical children of the sun and moon and the first 
rulers of the Incas. This asterism probably represented the 
stars Pollux and Procyon. The Sacred Gate may have been 
framed by the same stars, between which the sun passed, as 
through a gate, or by that gate or cave-like gap in the Milky 
Way between Gemini and Orion, just beneath the solar path. 
Both asterisms refer to the appearance of the first Inca pair 
out of the Pacari Tampu, or Cave of the Dawn, and. in earlier 
form, to the creation of the world at Tiahuanaco. June is a 
month peculiarly favorable to the rearing of infants in the 
region of Cuzco, and as we shall see, the September ritual 
tended to located the majority of the births at this time. 
Whether this was accident or design, is only indicated by the 
nature of the fact as stated. But there was a ceremonial pro- 
cession from Cuzco to Pacari Tampu and back in which the 
ruling Inca and his wife participated. We are told that it 
commemorated the birth of the sun and the journey of the 
Inca pair from Pacari Tampu to Cuzco. The month was called 
Huauque, the two brothers, apparently again referring to 
Manco Ccapac, but to his brother instead of his wife. Another 
name was Llusque, the sandals, suggesting the sacred journey* 
The prayer besought the celestial powers never to grow old. 

One Cancer asterism is named Nayra Ccunapa or Nauin. the 
Grindstone Eyes, and Uma Umina. Water or Head Gem. It is 
figured as a group of seven stars, evidently those in the head 



THE PERUVIAN ASFERISMS. 



33S 



of Hydra, directly under Cancer. The first two names refer to 
the deep red and irridesccnt cuttlefish eyes, which were fre- 
quently substituted for the human eye in mummies; the Head 
Gem. being the emerald, believed to have marvelous healing 
properties. The other asturism was the Cantut Fata, or Ter- 
race of the Cantut. The Caniul {/iiri/>/iri7^i^/»cis iii-fic-»,/i-its and imi- 
flora) was the sacred flower of ihe Incas, generally deep red in. 
color, and m form suggesting that of the squid. In June and 
July the fields around Cuzco are red with them. The ritual of 
the Intip Raymi. or Festival of the Sun, included the same 
solstitial resting as in December, but there was also the Anta 
Asitua, or Great Copper Dance, named from the use of objects 
of that dark red metal by the dancers. At that festival sacred 
cakes were eaten, called "■ cancu." They were made of crushed 
maize, reddened with the blood of animals, and the partici- 
pants in the accompanying dances were dressed in suits of like 
colors. In fact, throughout these ceremonials the keynote 
seems to be dark red, hidden fire, the color of the distant but 
returning sun. 

Leo becomes Chuqui Chinca, the Jaguar Lance, referring to 
Ihe figure of a puma springing upon his prey. It is formed by 
the stars of Leo. I'uma Courcu, or the Restless Puma, refers 
to the same asterism, which is the fitting symbol of the warrior. 
The ritual consisted of military balls, in which the troops were 
exercised to the accompaniment of noisy music, and songs of 
triumph were sung, 

Virgo was known as Sara Mama, (he Maize Mother, identi- 
fied also with Apacha Mama, or Mother Earth; also, as Toco 
Cachi, the female symbol, both names referring to Spica and 
the surrounding stars of Virgo. The month festival was called 
the Ccoya Raymi, or Queen's Fe.-tival, and was dedicated to 
the Maize and the Earth Mother, as well as to women in gen- 
eral, *ho in this month only, predominated in the ritual. All 
marriages throughout the country were celebrated at this time, 
none being legal during other months. The women devoted 
their time to ceremonialspinning and weaving, and lheEartf> 
Mother was worshiped with prayers to her to ensure the Iiuit- 
fulness, both of mankind and of Ihe crops. 

Libra was entitled Rainbow, Lightning, Sacred or Divided 
River and the Earth. It was represented by a group of objects 
corresponding to these names, and denoting the constellation 
Serpens, with parts of Ophiuchus, Libra, and the Milky Way, 
The Cuzco asterism was Munay Sseni.a, the male symbol, re- 
ferring also, probably, to the stars of Libra, The sign seems 
to have typified the male attributes, much as the preceding 
sign typified the female. The corresponding mylh explains 
the genesis of terrestial life by the union of the Earth Mother 
with Libiac, Spirit of Light, Lightning, and the Thunderstorm; 
and the ritual of the preceding month suggests an analogy. 
At this tiine the wet season was ushered in amongst the Andes, 



336 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



with striking electric displays followed by numerous rainbows, 
and the rains began to fertilize the earth for the coming har- 
vest. The month festival was Uma Raymi, the Head Festival, 
referring to the annual census of the male heads of families, 
which was taken this month, after the marriages of August- 
September. On this number was based the annual division and 
assignment of cultivable lands, to the newly constituted fami- 
lies. There was alfo a ceremonial purification by bathing at 
the junction of two streamj. The Situa Festival of the Sep- 
tember equino.x opened the ceremonies. 

Scorpius was the Peruvian Mallqui, meaning tree, or im- 
mortal, and referring to a group of stars in that constellation 
near Libra, which present the form of the two objects named. 
The other asterism was the Rimac Pampa, or Speaking Place, 
pointing in Cuzco to a sacred district, where all laws were an- 
nounced, probably during this month. It seems to refer to a 
sacred mountam or hill as Its celestial type, but the stars which 
framed it, were probably the same as those which framed the 
foliage of the Scorpius Tree. During this month was held the 
Ayamarca, or Carrying of the Corpse, in which the mummies 
of the dead were brought from their sepulchres and carried in 
procession around the city, in honor of the spirits, which were 
believed to revisit the earth at this time. 

Finally, Sagittarius is represented by its catasterism Orion, 
as the Stairway, and by its own western stars, with those near- 
est in Scorpius, as Pumap Chupam. the Puma's Tail, or the 
Drunken Puma. Just above this last-named group is a dark 
band in the Milky Way, dotted with two spots of light and 
presenting the form of the long tail of a puma. It is impos- 
sible to say whether this Pumap Chupam, or Puma's Tail, or 
the Drunken Puma, represents the older form of this asterism; 
but, as in the Puma of Leo, we recur to the warrior type in the 
ritual. The trials or tests at the initiation of the young men to 
knighthood, which were held at this time, suggest the steps of 
the Celestial Stairway. The novices were required to climb a 
hill, and then to c mtest in a footrace, in initiation of a certain 
idol. ■' which ran like a puma." There was also a contest with 
slings between two bands of novices, to test their va or, and 
they were exhorted to live henceforth as brave men. Arms 
were given to them, and they danced clothed in puma skins. 
Pra>crs were offered that the new knights might be f< rtunate 
in war. But, as contrasted with the Len Fe-tival, this was a 
ceremony confined to the nobles or leaders and to those about 
to be initiated as knights. 

A comparison of the Peruvian ritual with that of Walpi. as 
described in the valuable paper by Dr. J. W. Fewkes, on the 
annual ceremonies at that pueblo, reveals a correspondence too 
striking to be accidental, however else we may explain it. But 
the similarity of the ritual of more than one country on the 
Eastern continent is little less remarkable. Nevertheless it is 



^m HYMNS TO TAMMUZ. 337 

certain that this Peruvian ritual has not been introduced or 
established since the time of Columbus. But the purpose of 
this paper was to determine whether there was such a corre- 
spondence between li e Peruvian asterisms and ritual, as would 
indicate an astronomical basis for the latter, and the materia 
^^earing upon that question has now been presented, 

I 



IHYMNS TO TAMMUZ: A NEW RECOVERY OF 
BABYLONIAN LITERATURE.' 

BY JOSEPH OFFORD. 



It is only a short time since the acquisition and publication 
by Professor Meissner, of an important addition to the Gil- 
games myth, in a newly-found tablet preserving portions of a 
Babylonian recension of the story; yet now, already, we have 
the pleasure of reporting the editio princeps of another most in- 
teresting fragment of cuneiform literature, consisting of some 
hymns 10 Tammu/:, the Mesopotamian Adonis, which are pre- 
served in the museum of Owens College. Manchester. England. 

These new mythological texts, or ritual chants, have been 
deciphered by a scholar competent to essay the preliminary 
attempt at tht-ir translation; the work having been executed by 
Mr. Theophilus G. Pinches, LL. D., but he modestly desires it 
should be distinctly explained that for the present his render- 
ing is provisional only. Probably the principal reason for this 
precautionary statement, is that not only is the character of 
the script of very archaic Babylonian type, such as is indica- 
tive to scholars of the era of Hammurabi, but the text em- 
bodies a Sumero Akkadian language, unaccompanied, as such 
documents, fortunately for translators, have almost always 
hitherto been, by a Semitic Babylonian or Assyrian parallel 
version. 

The approximate date for the eogrossmcnt of this tablet is 
2000 B. C. The characters are carefully impressed, but it is 
deeply to be regretted mat the text is much mutilated. Origi- 
nally there were six columns of writing, with from 31 to ,13 
lines each, thus amounting to some 216 lines. Of these, about 
\iQ are fairly com I'teie, and some words of half the remainder 
are legible. It will be apparent, however, that the lacuns are 
sufficient to deeply diminish the literary and linguistic value of 
the text. A further fifficulty in decipherment arises from the 
f^ct that the hymns are written in a peculiar variety of Sumer- 
iari. known as the "dialect," Also, scarcely any ideographs are 
employed, the words being spelled out. 

It must be remembered that the only apparatus at present 



I THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

existing for attempting the translation of a Sum ero -Ak kadi anrl 
text, is [he dictionary of Semitic-Babylonian and Akkadiaal 
words, which may be. and partially has been, compiled froml 
the numerous lexicographical tablets composed for the stud- J 
ents of the ancient language, chiefly by the linguistic scribes.4 
of King Assurbannipal. W 

In his preface to the study o' the new document Dr. Pinches ' 
gives a list of about 60 words employed in it, whose meanings 
are positively ascertained by means of Semitic-Babj Ionian, or 
Assyrian, explanatory tablets. But even 1000 yeais before 
Christ, the Semitic Babylonians had forgotten the meaning of 
many Akkadian words; or, at least, ihey were uncertain about 
them, because frequently, when in doubt, they append dupli- 
cate, and even sometimes triple, translations of the ancient., 
tongue's words, or phrases In addition to this short vocabu-, 
lary of known word meanings placed at the commencemcn 
his work. Dr. Pinches appends a list, with commentary, ot c 
100 words to be found in the text, which will prove a most use<l 
ful assistant in the labors of future scholars upon Sumero-r 
Akkadian (ablets, and be a treasure to the comparative philo-1 
logist. I 

Before proceeding with his attempt to unravel the significa- 1 
tion of the text, Dr. Pinches devotes a few lines to satisfyin^l 
his readers that he is correct in considering the text to embody 
a paean, or invocatory hymn, to Tammuz. showing how frerl 
quently his name and that of his consort Ishtar occurs, and alsvj 
pointing out that he is often referred to as MiiOia. that is. hus-f 
band, of Ishtar. a term known to be used for Tammuz. , 

It is impossible in this review to give any very connected 
epitome of this tablet's contents, for the reasons already 
assigned, but the following summary will present some idea of 
the purport of the chants. The first column, of which about 
half the lines are still perfect, contains a call, or sunimonse, 
from Ishtar, or one of her devotees, to Tammuz to return to 
her. It is a special phrase, potent for its purpose. " The sum- 
monse of Tammuz resounding afar off, she who knows (it) sub- 
jugates him." This refrain, or call, is " Return, my husband." 
He is, in another part of these 33 lines of column one. entitled 
" The Lord," also " Lord Tammuz." The word for "' lord " is 
Am, in Sumeiian. The Babylonian-Semitic counterpart would 
be Adufii,* whence the Adonis of the Greeks, who confused this 
svnomym for the god with the deity himself. The Sumerian 
title for Ishtar Innamia. is. of course, also used. The word to 
enclose. Mura. U also philologically interesting, because of its 
apparent connection with Indo-Kuropean words. The con- 
cluding words of this co'umn of the hymn seem to indicate 
Tammuz's desire to be released, so as to obey Ishtar's call for 
him. 




P^ HYMNS TO TAMMUZ. 339 

Column two refers to some barrier separating Tammuz from 
Ishtar, doubtless o£ the Underworld Portal, because Eresegalla. 
who it is now considered is a form of the goddess Allat, seems 
to have had her domain bounded by it. This deity is one 
whom Mr. Legge recently showed us Egypt's Greek writers 
were well acquainted with," and her character clearly compre- 
hended by them. 

Column three of the tablet is very imperfectly preserved. 
It is a pxan of praise to Tamnjuz, acclaiming his arrival from 
the Underworld, terminating with a mournful memorial of his 
necessary return there as the annual season approached again. 
This section of the hymn calls him "Son of the Flute"; a note- 
worthy title to students of mythology. In the "Stoty of the 
Descent of Ishtar." we read that when Tammox came forth 
from the shades, he was welcomed with the pipings of flutes. 
"On the day of Tammuz play for me on the fiute . . . Together 
let the professional dirge singers male (and) female play tor 
me." 

With the exception of four lines at its end, column four is 
fairly legible, but its true purport is hardly ascertainable, for it 
contains numerous novel words which render the present trans- 
lation very tentative. They will provide excellent woik for 
students of Sumerian. and doubtless soon thcfr accurate mean- 
ings will be detected. It speaks of Tammuz temporarily in- 
habitin'T ihe Abzu, or Abyss, the abode of Ea, in which was the 
great water of Hades, whence Oannes came to instruct Mfso- 
potamian mankind in civilization. It apparently possessed a 
littoral, because Tammuz pastured his flocks in this nether- 
world.f Like the Egyptians, however, who believed in a sub- 
terannean abyss and great river (counterpart of the Nile) there- 
in, with its Elysian borderfields; and yet also had a celestial 
Oceanus and its isles of the blest. So. perhaps. Ihe Tammuz 
of the Akkadians had a heavenly stream along which he pas- 
tured his flock, the stars. Certainly, according to some versions 
of his myth, he. like Helios, fed his flocks in fields beyond the 
earth encircling ocean river on the route to the shadowy land 
of the departed. 

Several lines in this part of the hymn refer to Tammuz as a 
corn deity, or harvest god, causing the grain to come forth; ap- 
parently the bursting of the seed beneath the soil being especi- 
ally attributed to him. and then its growth and ripening. In 
fact, the phase of Tammux as God of Agriculture is plainly 
dwelt upon here, and Dr. Pinches, from his appreciation of the 
writer's meaning, says ihat the successful call of Ishtar for 
Tammuz to come back to her arms, caused all seeds to germi- 
nate for the approaching season. The planting, tendering and 
culture of plants, as worship symbolical of Tammuz, Is easily 



I 




\ 



3«> THE AMERICAS ANTIQUARIAN. 



cxp'irablc from this point of riew, and adds interest to Dr. 
Ciir>-se's proposed reoderii^ of Isaiah xvii: lo: *'Thou didst 
pUni plants of Adonis.** Na aminim: Naaman : "darling/' 
appears to have been a favorite title of Tammuz. 

Tne last two columns refer to Tammuz being lost and re- 
stored, and to certain spells and incantations, and to barriers 
the god had to be assisted to pass. As with earlier parts of 
the songs, these appear to have been recited by some officiant 
who enacted the role of Ishtar. 

Dr. Pinches appends a translation of the previously known 
Hymns to Tammuz in the British Museum, which term him 
**Lord of the Underworld" and *' Husband of Ishtar," and 
allude to him as the germ of the plant lying in the field furrow; 
as the bud which is to blossom, and a sapling by a watercourse; 
but more especially laud him as a freshet, or stream, deity. 
Professor Jastrow has pointed out that at one period Tammuz 
was a water spirit, and adored with libations of water. In the 
** Descent of Ishtar" it says: "To Tammuz her youthful con- 
sort, pour out pi:re water." 

It will be recollected that the worship of Tammuz- Adonis 
at Gcbal. or Bvblos, in Svria, was a river cult The stream was 
said to run red t^cause dyed vrith the soil washed down after 
the >easonal rains upon Lebanon. At Byblos, however, the 
Mesopotamian myth was grafted on to the Isis-Osiris story, 
and the " Lament of Isis for Osiris," her husband head, was 
united with the "Weeping for Tammuz" — Adonis, — of Syria. 
The .Adonis-Osiri- side of the Byblos cult has recently been 
treated of bv M. Lcfebre in the late M. Karl Piehl's magazine 
of Ej^vptolocry, "The Sphinx,*' Vol. VI. 

It i- most interesting to know that Tammuz worship is not 
extinct, but stil! survives among the Yezidis of Kurdistan, in 
the hiji^hlands east of the Tigris, together with that of Shamas, 
another old Babvlonian deitv, whom the Yezidis now call 
Sheikh Shems; the latter they worship by sacrifices of white 
oxen. Their Tammuz cult is secret and symbolized by a 
peacock emblem called Melek Ta'Qs. This is the mysterious 
Ta'us of the Mahomedans, called also El Khudr, who, as often 
as killed, returns to life as the Tammuz of the ancient Naba- 
teans, and of Ezckiel viii:i4. So is Tammuz the origin of 
Thoas, or Theias, husband of Myrina, a king of Assyria, 
according to ApoUodorus. 

The Yezidis call Ta'Qs, Abta'us, namely, ** Father Taus," 
and when worshiping him, adorn themselves with scarlet 
anemones. This was the favorite or particular flower of 
Adonis, who is Tammuz himself, under his Syrian appellation 
of Adon, lord. Ovid tells us the scarlet anemones grew from 
the blood of Adonis. The Arabs possess the same myth, 
probably descended from its Syrian folklore side, for they call 
the anemone "the wounds of Adonis." 

That Tammuz worship should still be extant in a far away 



HYMNS TO TAMMUZ. 34i 

corner of Asia Minor is not remarkable, when it is remembered 
that Albiruni, in the tenth century, clearly tells us that Tarn- 
muzu was by the Sabeans commemorated by lamentations and 
weeping in his time. The ancient, so-called. "Book of Na- 
batcan Agriculture " has much about Tamm../. and Tans, as be- 
comes a farmer's guide book, and its translator, Ibn VVashshiyah, 
says he had seen an ancient book giving a complete narrative 
of the Tammuz legend. 

Amos viii:io, informs us the mourning was for " the only 
son," and Zechariah xii:ii, speaks of it being for " Hadan 
Romnion." These two wailings were really for one and the 
same deity. Macrobius explains that lladah, the Syrian sun 
god, whose festival was a harvest one, was the victorious pro- 
ducer of vegetation, the same who at the autimmal equinox, 
"the sixth month" of Ezekiel viii: lo, was being mourned for, 
because of his effacemeni in the approaching winter. 

In the Ishtar legend Ihe goddess Tillili cries. "Ah, my 
brother, the only one" (line 134). In the new hymns, lines 
23 and 29 of column 4, we have, "the brother" and "the 
sister" called to. In the Hymn to Tammuz at the British 
Museum, the refrain "the call of the lord" is quoted. Three 
of these phrases are in the rubric of Tammuz worship in 
Zechariah xxii: 18. Just as these cuneiform texts are parallel 
to the Old Testament statement, so. and even more closely, 
does the accusation of Gilgames. in his myth, agaitst Ishtiir, 
for her misdeeds: "For Tammuz, the husband of thy youth. 
from year to year, thou causest bitter weeping"; exemplify 
the incidental information the Hebrew writers present. When 
the great temple tower Esu-gala of Tammuz, at Agade, is 
excavated, we may anticipate possessing his story complete 
for science once more. 

The accuracy ot the Biblical references to the cults and 
stage of thought, proper, we now know, to the contemporary 
civilizations of the peoples with whom the Hebrews came in 
contact, is a continual proof, not only of the genuineness of 
the Jewish writings themselves, but also of the approximate 
correctness of the date hitherto assigned to them. The ever 
augmenting proofs of thii, which appear the more the ancient 
records are recovered, and the more completely what they con- 
tain is understood, is one of the most remarkable results of 
modern reiearch. There is no need to exaggerate their evi- 
dence, as is. unfortunately, sometime attempted, it is ample to 
an unbiased mind, as it is. 



rZiCVIAS ST^iY OF THE DELUGE. 



F jC3tfr M iuis£ «rx:£S ic ixe aokiacat jiMC of tkc Cszco t^ 
ixrs: vxx tc^scz i^ tu zd^gax ot ihcir idolatries^ it is 
icr taac tasae j^^zjpj^ ±sd, sc kn uojri^gc of vrituigi Bat io a 
ZTA^-c, 'A sae.^£s ra^tr^ ? jrnsiHCarTiia , wiuck is mtmr Cnzco, 
txrrr u^ tSfS 13^ sc cacx odc x rK laos^ vitk the land they 
oi-riitrtrd. pocaitec vsrit^gxrcs •oo t iniaia bonds. and also their 
c " ^-c Ajif^okc nk£K pKrrnngs lAc ioC^ovi^ faMc vas reprc- 



Ir tx^ Lit !>: lt^3c:# CrarpA-, «ko vas tke 6fst Inca and 
fr.^ wr-vs t^cr be^as to be rg'Vd Caikiica of the Son and to 
m jr^z,^ tit Sir . »r tr rti z ftll accocnt of the Delug^c. They 
«a^i laa: «1. ps^so.t a= i «1I created tiiai^s perished in it, in as 
f«r «s tiie Tcttr iosa a=«yre all the k^est mountains in the 
V vr«d. No lirir^ tJiia;^ scn-iTed. except a man and a womao, 
i^u > reniarst d := ^ >:;x. aci vrea the vateis subsided, the wind 
Carrie: thtciA tc H..iz:aco. vhich will be over seventy leagues 
frox Cuz-to. « I::t> more or icss. The creator of all things 
C'>'nn:a::dtd theni to remain there as Mitimas. and there in 
Ti-ihuanaco me Creator began to raise up the people and 
nations that are in that region, making one of each naiion of 
clay and painting the dresses that each one was to wear, those 
thai were to wear their hair, with hair, and those that were to 
hi shorn, with their ha:r cat: and to each nation was given the 
ian^ua^e tna: was to De spoken, and the songs to be sung, and 
XT.': sc^ds atA food they were to sow. When the Creator had 
finished painting and making the said nations and figures of 
cay. he gave live and sojI to each one, men as well as women, 
an^i ordered th^t they pass under the earth. Thence each 
nation came forth up in the places to which he ordered them to 
((o Thus they say that some came out of caves, others issued 
from hills, others from fountains, others from the trunks of 
trees. P'rom this cause, and owmg to having come forth and 
commenced to multiply, from those places, and to having had 
the beginning of their imeage in them, they made huacas and 
places of worship of them in memory of the origin of their 
lineage which proceeded from them. Thus each nation uses 
the dress with which they invest their huacas, and they say that 
the first that was born from that place were there turned into 
stones; others say the first of their lineage were turned into 
falcons, condors, and other animals and birds. Hence the 
huacas they use and worship are in different shapes. . . 

They say that the Creator was in Tiahuanaco and that there 
was his chief abode, hence the superb edifices — worthy of ad- 
miration, in that place. On these edifices were painted many 
drrsses of Indians, and there were many stones in the shape of 
men and women who had been changed into those for not 
obeying the commands of the Creator. They say that it was 



PERUVIAN STORY OF THE DELUGE. 313 

dark, and that there he made the sun, the moon, and stars, and 
that he ordered the sun, moon, and sUts to go to the Island of 
Titicaca, which is near at hand, and thence to rise to heaven. 
They also declare that when the sun in the form of a man was 
ascending into heaven, very brilliant, it called to the Incas and 
to Manco Ccapac as their chief, and said : ' Thou and thy de- 
scendants are to be lords and arc to subjugate many nations. 
Look upon me as thy father and thou shalt be my children and 
thou shall worship me as thy father.' And with these words 
it gave to Manco Ccapac, for his insignia and arms, Ihe surUur 
paufiir unA the c/iampi and the other insignia that are used by 
the Incas I ke scepters. And at that point ihc sun and moon 
and stars were commanded to ascend to heaven and to fix 
themselves in their place, am' they did so. At the same in- 
stant Manco Ccapac and his brothers and sisters, by command 
of the Creator, descended under the eatth and tame out again 
at ithe cave of Paccati-Tambo, though they say that other 
nations also came out of the same cave, at the point where the 
sun rose on the first day. after the Creator had divided the night 
irom the day. Thus it was that they were called the Children 
of the Sun, and that the sun was worshiped and revered as a 
father. 

They also have another fable in which they say that the 
Creator had two sons, one called Ymaymana Viracocha and 
the other Tocapo Viracocha. Having completed the tribes 
and nations, and assigned dresses and languages to them, the 
Creator sent the sun up to heaven, with the moon and stars 
each in its place. The Creator, who in the language of the 
Indians is called Fachayachi and Tec-iviracocha. which means 
the incomprehensible God. then went by the road of the moun- 
tains from T»huanaco, visiting and beholding all the nations, 
and determining how they had begun to multiply and how to 
comply with his commands. He found that some natives had 
rebelled and had not obeyed his commands; so he turned a 
Urge number of them into stones of the shape of men and 
women, with the same dress they had worn. These conversions 
into stone were made at the following places; Tiahuanaco, 
Pucara. and Xaiixa, where they say he turned the /iiiai-iz called 
Hiiarivilca into stone, and in Pachacamac and Cajamarca, and 
in other parts. In truth there are great blocks of stone in 
those places, some of which are nearly the size of giants. 
They must have been made by human hands in very ancient 
times; and by reason of the loss of memory and the absence 
of writing, they invented this fable, saying that people had 
been turned into stones for their disobedience, by command of 
the Creator They alsi relate that in Pucata, which is forty 
leagues from the city of Cuzco. on the Collao rrad. fire came 
down from heaven and destroyed a great part of the people, 
while those who were taking to flight were turned into stones. 
The Creator, who is said to be the father of Ymaymana 




344 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 

Viracocha and Tocapo Viracocha, commanded that the elder 
Ymaymana Viracocha, in whose power all things were placed, 
should set out from the point and go by way of the mountains 
and forests through all the land, giving names to the large and 
small trees and to the flowers and fruits that ihey bear, and 
teaching the people which ones were good for food or for medi- 
cine and which should be avoided. — Bandeiicr in The American 
A nthropolog ist. 

THE STORY OF GILGAMES AND THE DELUGE. 

The legend of Gilgames givts the wonderful storv of that 
hero, who was king of Erech, called Urut suburi, ** Erech of the 
enclosure." He heard of the existence of Ea-bani, a creature 
half bull, half man, extremely wise withal, and apparently de- 
termined to bring him to his capital, as his counsellor. Two 
women were sent to entice him to Erech; they succeeded in 
their mission, and he afterwards became the friend and com- 
panion of the hero. Gilgames then went on an expedition 
against the King of Elam, whom he conquered. Afterwards 
he came into conflict with the goddess Ishtar, who had pro- 
posed marriage to him, but whom he had repulsed, reproaching 
her with her treatment of her former lovers or husbands. 

The result was that Ishtar. sent a winded bull against Gil- 
games and his satyr-like counsellor, who, however, succeeded 
in killing the divine animal. A complaint was then made by 
the goddess to the god of the heavens, Anu, and in conse- 
quence of this, perhaps, misfortune came upon them. Ea-bani, 
the satyr, was attacked by some creature that caused his death, 
and Gilgames himself was stricken with a disease, for the cure 
of which he traveled far and wide. At last he set out to find 
the home of the Babylonian Noah (Pir-napistim), from whom 
he learned the story of the Flood, and by whom, aided by his 
wife, he was cleansed from the malady with which he had been 
smitten. After this he returned with the faithful boatman who 
had piloted him across the sea, to his capital, " Erech the 
Walled." . 

The poetical legend of the descent of Ishtar into Hades to 
seek Tammuz, the husband of her youth, has, as its introduc- 
tion, a description of Hades which resembles closely that found 
in fhe legend of Gilgames. and on this account it has been 
thought that it may possibly be an extract from the longer 
work. The completion of the legend of Gilgames can alone 
solve this question. 



RACES AND RELIGIONS IN AMERICA. 



The subject of comparative religion has been under dis 



nfoi 



of the strongest and best thinkers 



r many years, s 

have wriitcii upon it wl-II and forcibly. The field which has 
received the most allt-ntioii and occupied the most important 
position has been the continent of Asia, though Arabia, Afric;:, 
and the northern part of Europe have also been studied. 

There is, however, a field on the continent of America 
which has not been studied as closely as it deserves, for it car- 
ries us back to a stage of religious development which is more 
primitive than can be found elsewhere, and at the same time 
presents a series of stages which are quite as interesting as 
those found in Eastern countries. 

It is the purpose of the author to describe the different sys- 
tems as they are found on this continent, especially in regard 
to their geographical situation, and to compare ihem with those 
which existed in Oriental countries in the earliest time, and to 
point out the resemblances. The thought which is to be held 
in mind, is that in America we have a field in which religion 
passed through those stages which are known to have been the 
lowest, and at the same time had reached a stage which was 
nearly or quite as high as any that has been foimd in the pagan 
or heathen nations of the Old World. This makes this conti- 
nent a remarkable field for the investigation into the subject of 
comparative religion, and especially among the lower races. 

I. The first point to which we shall call attention, is that 
the races and tribes which formerly had dwelt here, were not 
only isolated from other continents, but in a large degree 
from one another, but developed their religious systems in 
parallel lines. It is not claimed that there were any 
mountain barriers which separated the races according to belts 
of latitude and made them subject to such differences of 
climate, for the mountain chains all run in a north and south 
direction, while in the Eastern hemisphere they run in an east 
and west direction. Still it will be found that the races were 
so separated from one another that they deve oped different 
phases of society, different modes of government, different 
forms of religion, and to a great degree different languages. 
There were several causes of separation. In the first place, there 



3«6 THE AMERieW ANTtCf^'ARiAX. 

wcte wid*t b^.t^ :a Jih.ch th-? climate ace soi! kept certain tribes 
boggifMS tee «ta ^oast. acd others tae forest belts and regions 
io tbc interior. 

The chain of the Grca: Lakes and the r:vei3 ran ea>t 
and mcst, ancx for i.rd Iiri«?rs along mhich certain races clu5*e ed; 
the G'jif of >lcX!co ar.'i tnc 5o-them sea draving otncr tibcs. 
To lh#: *esl of tr.c Rocky Mountains there were river* and long 
valleys m wn-.ch *»eparate triDes were settled, c^ch ha%ing iis 
own mo'Je of life, its own >ocial svstem and. to a certain ex- 
teot, Its own religious customs: while in the midst of the moun- 
tains and on the great plateau of the Interior there were other 
tribes and races, which adopted religious practices peculiar to 
themselves. The effect was that a great variety of religious 
systems arose on this continent: systems which were largely the 
product of the region, and greatly influenced by the pecu- 
liarities of the natural surroundings. 

1. To illustrate : the Esquimaux were scattered along the 
shores of the Arctic Sea. and were connned to the ice fields 
and to a regioi where the year was divided into a long winter 
of darkness and a »hort summer of daylight. The natural con- 
sequence of this was that they developed a form of religion, or 
superstition, entirely different from any which existed else- 
where. The people here were fishermen and their religion 
consisted in the supersti: ion which peopled the sea \* ith strange 
creatures, which they imagined to have supernatural powers 
and at the same time had the human form. To the south of 
this was the second district, which extended from the Arctic 
Sea to the chain of the Great Lakes and as far south as the 
Ohio River. It was occupied by a people mainly hunters, 
who lived on the creatures found in the forests and rivers and 
lakes. It was natural that they should have developed a form of 
religion which had regard to the wild animals which prevailed 
in the forest, and that their mythology should have abounded 
with descriptions of strange creatures which dwe t in the water. 
Stories were told about fish and serpents which were natural- 
istic and at the same time fraught with supernatural powers. 

2. There were tribes living on the prairies as far west as the 
Rocky Mountains and as far north as Lake Winnipeg, who 
might he called nomads and were constantly moving about in 
pursuit of j^ame, spending a part of the time in villages scat- 
tered alon^ tiie streams, and a part of the time in mountains. 
All of these tribes were totemistic in their beliefs, and yet their 
totems varied, for the people who dwelt in the forest took the 
wild animals which abounded about them, and made them their 
totems, while those who dwelt on the prairie lands took the 
buffalo anfl other animals which roamed on the prairies as their 
totems. The mythology of the two classes varied almost as 
much as did the animals themselves. Even the form of gov- 
ernment varied — in one case it was matriarchy; in the other, it 
was patriarchy. 



RACES AND RELIGIONS IN AMERICA. 347 

3. Another region is worthy of notice because of the diversity 
of population and the peculiar form of- religion which pre-* 
vailed. It is the region in which so many mounds were situa- 
ted — mounds which contained a great variety of relics, on 
which the greatest number of symbols have been discovered.- 
These symbols are spec^chles^, but they tell the story about 
the religious system which prevailed, and have grtat . in- 
terest for the archaeologist. it appears that tliere was a. 
great variety in these symbols, and the conclusion is that there 
was a great diversity in the religious beliefs of the people who 
dwelt here. They were symbols which abounded with crosses 
and circles, crescents and squares, animal figures, spiders, birds, 
and serpents; all of which had a latent significance. In fact, 
the symbols all indicate that sun worship was the chief system 
which prevailed here, though it was iiiodified by the lunar cult, 
and by a regard for certain animals and insects, which were 
connected with Nature worship. This is the region where ser- 
pent symbols are very numerous, but the pyramid is also found 
here; the two indicating that there was a greater variety of 
religious systems than prevailed farther north. 

4. The arid region will be considered next. This was separated 
from the region just described, by a wide range of mountains, 
but was, and still is, occupied by a people who have a form of 
reljf^n'on, as well as a mode of life, distinct from either of those 
which have been described. Here we find mountaineers who 
are at present shepherds, but were formerly hunters. The 
Navajos are the best representatives of them. But in the 
midst of the mountains the Great Plateau arises, which has 
been called the *'air continent." It is an arid region, yet it is 
Occupied, and has been toi an unknown period, by the Pueblo 
tribes, who have developed a communistic state of society and 
2re practicing a form of religion which differs from any other 
On the continent. 

5. There was a district in the Vallev of Mexico, but which 
stretched far to the south into the region of Central America. 
Here society had developed beyond the hunter stage, even be- 
yond the ordinary agricultural stage, into a stage in which 
^here were many different employments, but all under the con- 
trol of kings and priests. It was a region into which the 
Spaniards entered, and where they found many things which 
Surprised them. The form of religion which existed here was 
^ matter of greater surprise to the Spaniards, than the social 
development. The symbolism which prevailed here is very 
elaborate and worthy of study. There was here a system of 
Writing, which differed from all others in the world, a system 
Which consisted of hieroglyphics, but so mingled with picto- 
graphs that it was difficult to decipher. The system which 
Existed here may be regarded as a solar cult, modified by the 
Worship of th<j elements and a regard for personal divinities, 
Who seem to be the personification of the heavenly bodies and 




ASmoDAJUAlt. 



*> 



theSm 



fmmax. Tbb is • fans of reiigioo whicb 
:4 to fCadf. Cor it ifi&en ftoni aay fooDcl 
Wc ^"^ ^V' fc — g * gf . that it so rc- 
c «M^ pfcvwcd n Central America, 
of Soatb Amertca. that it 
s- tbe *ame head. A term 
hf Ma^ J. W. Powelt. which re- 
ef pgcmliaitVf , the term is "Heno- 
' ■■ the TOTskip of tlie Nature 
bat makx^ SOOM oac of thnc 
p aw era the cUei object of wonUp and ascribing 
Uk h a pciso*al character, bat also personifying 
oikcr XatiBe poa en and makiag tfaem subordinate. 
Thas the leU po M S sy ne^ correspoDded to the state 
of lociet T. of «hich U»e<c were different grades and 
JiBeicM "*■•— amd at the same time it corre- 
s pom ^d with the wotfcs of nature and peculiarities 
erf chelate, the cocrdatioa between the religion and 
the geopAphical smroanduigs being ven.- close. 

Now. this is a bktc sumntarr. but it &bows that 
there verc many different forms of reltgioo and dif- 
ferent s^-stens of mythology, on tbe cootinenl of 
North America, and tbat tfacy all corresponded to 
tbe geographical sorrouadiags. The origin of these 
religioos and tbe diSerent stages through which they 
have passed, ts another point, but so far as they have 
been studied, tfae systems all were closely con- 
formed to the geographical situation. Wc are not 
able to trace anj- of these systems back to a very 
early period: certainly no such early period as existed 
in the lands of the far East, but we do find an adapta- 
tion to the surroundings, which are quite as striking 
as any that can be traced in other lands. 

It will be acknowledged that in tbe continent of 
Europe there were different systems of religion, and 
that tbey corresponded «ith the physical surround- 
ings. The mytholog)' always abounds with stories 
which bring the natural scenery into view and give 
the picture a background, which is not only natural 
but interesting. Such is the case with the Scandi- 
navian and Teutonic mythology. But much of the 
mythology of America is equally beautiful and in- 
teresting, and at tbe same time it pictures the Ameri- 
can scenery as it was before the white man appeared, 
and is all the more interesting on that account. It is 
true that each tribe or group of tribes was confined 
to a particular locality, and developed its own rayth- 
ology and religious system, but this gives great 
variety and furnishes an unbounded field (or research 
and for speculation. 



RACES AND RELIGIONS IN AMERICA. 

The continent of America, in fact, fur- 
nishes more systems of religion and of my- 
thology than any other continent upon the 
face of the earth, but they are all systems 
which seem to have grown up in the same 
region where they arc now found, and they 
are full of allusions to the physical char- 
acter and topographical features of the 
region where they are preserved. 

II. This brings up the point which is of 
great interest to the scholars who have 
studied the subject of comparative religions. 
One of the first questions is: What is the 
lowest form of religion, and through what 
stages did it pass? We, who live in Christ- 
ian lands, know what the highest form is, 
but the question is as to the lowest. 

On this question there are great differ- 
ences of opmion, and no two are really in 
agreement. The study of the problem in 
connection with the races which were found 
on this continent, may be of service to us, 
especially when we consider the correspond- 
ence of their religion to their social slate, 
their domestic life, and their peculiar habits 
and ways. 

We begin with the Hyperboreans, who 
dwelt on the shores of the Arctic Sea. the 
most degraded of all the races upon the face 
of the earlh. There never was a people 
more stupid in their religious ideas than 
these people at the far North, and none 
more degraded in their persona! character. 
The dark night, which continued so long 
and presented such a strange contrast to the 
ghostly icebergs and cold ice fields, un- 
doubtedly had the effect to keep ali\'e 
the superstitions which prevailed It is 
not strange that with the muttering ice- 
bergs and swashing of the waves under- 
neath 'the icy shores, that there should 
have arisen a superstition that a super- 
natural being dwelt under the water, and 
could be seen at times amid the waves. 



3c=> -' -^ -^"^' .:a^ ax :^UAk an. 

Tsc 5::r\-. as ir-Id by :be Es^jimaux, is that Sedna w^s r 
::?•'. air wzz* ecr.'::. a-.T- ner h^i-band. or liege lord, in a canoe 
v: , iiTt Z'^zT :"r "rrintT. >*i. bji while they were in the midsi 
: : :!:e witr'i^. :r.-'r i' -sr a frrcir storm and both were likclv 
:: r»- r cr^T.z .rr.tz Tr.c caroe was overthrown, both fell into 
tr.r waZzt. r_: :rr n:a:. u if &--> :<:■ clinib into the canoe ajja:n, 
ur .1 :"r -a . T.kT wi> -: y aDic ::• cling tj tac sides. While in 
:r..- a::.:-i? :"t szzrz: z.tw -p^r. :nem and the waves thrcat- 
erri :. ir.c-.: :."tm. i-i ira:r. seemed near, but the man, 
tik r.i: r..s ft. rr V:r.::r : : i\i. cu: :-fi the finders of the woman 
ir.:: :r.--*: r.*- iasy >; t-.s: >.-.? sink beneath the waves. The 
sjr:rs::.:r ;: :r- rt: r? is tha: this Sedna. who became h 
rr-. r.?:t- ir.i > c: rfii lei r.t: character as a woman, still lives 
-rie: :::? >*i. :-. r.i « rrr. : f a nerce storm arises and the waves 
::>> r.\;:.-. :-."• , :r.i r !»-:-. a":i th:^ wind's shriek, thev can not 
CT v T.ir.: :: : : :? :: :r:s -'s: :: ?.'.] created beings, but they 
Cir >;:: :•;- '.\:z - -z'. . :.k r.^: :j: :r^m beneath the --ea. the 
.»;.:v': .i- : : c :-.:e zr. --. -^r T-jrirer :«? a'-ou^e their tears, 
>;/.*» > : : r ■ i: ■ / - *v -f :.-.e Arctic regions. She maybe 
•r;:..-/^ . A5 :^;: .1-- r. ~ci:::ns :: tr.e sea an i the storm, foi 
> t > s». . «>i : - if cr-jtl as eiihcr. and as ready to seiz^ 

. - . :' -. * ". : n - :r..- her reich and draw them down int< 



& > V V 



ear. 



Tro:: - :.::.-::: s*. s:--r. wbtch p'eva:ls in th** same region 

' :-r r;r :* :r.i: i^ere is no: only one living p^r- 

, -A :• ^ .- - r. rfi:-.-/-:: as a iemon or a ghost, but that 

::r.::r.-e ::• inhabit the rocks 
?,z:. i'r constantly present to 
v^;. .. . .; . ; .: f: - :.■:>■:. j\ i-ivinz a»vav the deer 
: ■■ : ■; . : .: -f V;-::* r^ tr.er:: !':t: <-jccess in nshin^, 

.; . ^: ^ .' :-:-■ J >eise i-..: '!e-.:h. This i< another 

: • * * - *• . -! ::*: rtnr- r -,v bee .^mes vi<ible and /n- 
:"... > •. ■> . L- .1-:': 5-a Tr.-.re i- no ordinaj-y person 

: . ■ .' : -■ i :■* : J: :* .:> :: Mivish them from the sky or 

- ; : ■* .\,-. . : r S '. .-. :r. ;. r ^r. r -.: .s h:s chief mission to pro- 
■v.: : '. , . . . r -; :: r. 5 c. . r-.-ittce. a-.i counteract it by 

^ - ' • .■•-•"< '. . ,.<::i: jr.s . t :r.:s fact mav ^be found in 

^^■'..: .» ;. J _' tr-v' : .t 'j:rArr.s or bone cutting:s. spcci- 

'.. - - .. • :** A ,: .-* ■: :.-- --ts. These car\-ed bones are, 

V ..'- : *. . /:-: .^: i . f- specirr.ens of art which have 

.^^'v .' . • . ■ ;- > e. --: --: -: „: a-e s-^rcestive of the system 

" ^ '• ' : " - -r .1 ; / >;r:"f have compared the bone 

- '■ • ., -■.>"■• /^r . ■* jr -": :. . r..i :r. the caves of Europe, and 
:-.i\ v^ ; . • : :■ ■-..*:.:-" :-.-: -ese^tblance and other cir- 
V. "^" ^- *■ : '-f ":"- -- I.. \ -At re the descendants of the 
V > V .^. . . X "■ -^t A- know nothing about the 
-• i: .^ ' / . .: -- .i-.i. therefore, can trace no 









^\ • ■ •■ :-:* - ;• ^ ■/-- Ar.i carved b^nes that the 

.• : . * :.t? rower of the presence of 



RACES AND RELIGIONS IN AMERICA, 



Ktiei 



ind therefort 



e led to 



1 the [ 



35' 

r of the 



I 



power 

^hdmans, or priests, to dispel or drive awav the demons, and 
to bring in the game. We see this illustrated by the cuts, in 
ail of which we see the reindeer, and even the fish and other 
creatures subject to the Shaman, while the people were subject 
to his power for their very subsistence. This may be com- 
pared to that form of religion which prevailed in the far East 
in early historic times, which consisted in the belief in demons, 
and depended upon the power of the priest to exorcise them, 
survivals of which were recognized late in history, even among 
the Babylonians. Demonism similar to that which still pre- 
vails in the ice fields o( the North, prevailed in archaic times in 
the regions of the far East, especially in Babylonia, This has 
been made known by the recent discoveries. It is supposed. 
that the various animal figures which are still common 
here, and have been discovered among the ruins in the midst 
of the mrunds of Babylonia, are really the survival" of the 
totemism which prevailed there, 

lar to this belief in demons and growing out of it, was 
Ibe habit of cutting the. shapes of the human (ace upon the 
-^urface of the rocks, and placing within them great glaring 
which seemed to resemble demons looking out from the 
depth of the earth, suggesting the thought that Srdna, the 
great demon of the sea, had changed her abode frc-n the sea 
to the rock, and though silent and speechless, yet was haunt- 
ing ihe ea'th. Some have interpreted this as an evidence that 
i-m was the earliest form of religion, and that it pre- 
i here, along with demonism. This may, indeed, be a 
true interpretation, for it is one characteristic of the supersti- 
tion thgt there is a hidden soul or spirit in almost every object 
in creation. It is not often that the soul has lineaments which 
tan be seen, as in this case of the face in the rocks, but it is 
rather a shadowy ghost and is oftener heard of than seen. 
Such is the belief of the degraded Africans and many other 
races, who dwell far away from the seats of civilization. 

The system of animism is associated with demonism, and 
awakens fear in the mind of the savage, just as the shadow and 
a ghost would awaken a fear in the minds of the partially 
civilized. The three systems which arc to be found in the far 
North of this continent may well be compared to those which 
are called the rudest and lowest, i.e.. fetishism, animism and 
totemism. 

III. The system of totemism comes up next for considera- 
tion. This has been often described, and yet it is poorly under- 
stood. It consists in the belief that animals were the first 
ancestors, and are at present the chief divinities. The names 
of the animals are given to the clans, with the idea that there 
is a charm in the name itself. To make this, however, more 
forcible, the people place the figure of the animal on the tents 
front of the houses, on their graves, and in every place 



^^^«r in front ol 



3S» 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



which they occupied. Some of the tribes cut the hair, so as to 
represent the animal whose totem they worshiped. There are 
individual totems which aie tn reality dream gods, for they are 
seen only after long fasting and in connection with their visions 
or day dreams. This form of religion is quite widespread, but 
prevailed mainly among the hunter tribes, but varies according 
to locality. The lotemism which existed among the Algon- 
quins differed from that found among the Iroquois, and this 
again from that found among the Dakotas, the variations ap- 
pearing even among the separate tribes. The study of sym- 
bolism will bring us into contact with this tolemism, and it is 
important that we should realize how deeply-seated it was in 
the mind of the ptople before we undertake to interpret the 
symbols. 

It would seem as if all nature was haunted by supernatural 
beings, who were regarded by the people as tribal totems and 




Fig. 4.~The Dter. 



Ftg- S — 1'f" Crane. 



as personal divinities. These fabulous animals dwell under the 
waterfalls, in lakes, in caves, in trees, hills, and people the 
landscape everywhere, so that it seems almost impossible to 
escape from their presence and power. Reminders of the 
totems are found upon the tents and houses, the garments, 
personal decorations and ornaments, and fill even the amuse- 
ments with strange associations and thoughts. The most 
singular feature about totemism is that every individual, as 
well as every clan and tribe, is under the special care and 
guardianship of some animal. The figure of the same animal _ 
is often placed upon the wooden tablets which are placed ovc| 




r 



RACES AND RELIGIONS IN AMERICA. 



the grave of the individual. These grave posts recount the 
exploits of the individual, as well as the religious beliefs, and 
in this respect resemble the grave stones and monuments on 
which the virtues ot the deceased arc mentioned. 

The cuts represent the grave boards which are still com- 
mon among the Ojibwas, One of these (Fig. 4) represents 
the totem which is the deer, it is placed upside down, to denote 
the death of the person. Along with it are marks showing the 
battle-^ which the person had fought, and helow are personal 
decorations and signs of honor as well as the religious beliefs. 
Another one (Fig. 5) represents the crane, which was a com- 
mon and prominent lolem in the region. Figures 6 and 7 re- 
present the turtle and the bear, which were also prominent 
totems. Figures 8 and g represent the grave boards of ihe 





Fig. 6.— The TurlU. 



Fig. J.— The Btar. 



Ojibwas, which give the private records as well as the totems 
of the individual. 

It is acknowledged by all students of comparative religion 
that there is a complete series, which can be traced out by (he 
study of the ancient monuments of the East; but that there 
was any such series lo be found upon this continent, is some- 
what novel, and yet the fact that we have the same social con- 
ditions here which correspond with those which were common 
■ n the East at various dales, makes the continent a very favor- 
able field for the study of the subject. The prevalence of 
totemism in Old Testament times is shown by the dying words 
of Jacob, for in Ihcm he described the animal figures which 
were shown on the escutcheon of each tribe. The lion, on the 
escutcheon of Judah; the serpent, on that of Dan; the wild 



3f* 



THE AMERICAN ASTigi'ABlAN, 



ass. on that of Itsacbu; ind the bind oa thai of Naphta. 1 
Toiemisffl prevails amoog the tribes of Arabia to this da- 
It also existed in Scandinavia and may be recognized in tht ." 

mytholoe>-. as veil as in the ornaments and symbols, especial :M 
iht sj-Ribol of the dragon seen upon their boats. 

A modilicd form of totemism is found in the Mississip rj, 
Valley, especially on (he Ohio River and the Gulf of Mexic«. 
Here we see amid the stone graves and in the mounds, a gr&a( 
variety of pottery v?jes, shell tablets, and other relics, on whicfi 
are inscribed circles and squares and spiral lines, crescents, 
sun symbols, winged figures, and human images. These sug- 
gest a thought that sun worship was mingled with animal wor- 




Fi):.S.-Tke C. 




Fig. ij.^JJi 



ship and that religion had grown out of totemism into sun 
worship and assumed a new form. 

IV. Then- was a system of religion which prevailed among 
the tribes of the Northwest coast. It consisted in the worship 
of supernatural beings in the form of birds, animals, fishes, and 
double-headed serpents; the four elemcnts^air, earth, water 
and fire^each being represented by a special divinity The 
bird, which is supreme upon the land, is the raven, called Ychi. 
H dwells in the forest, but reigns supreme over the creatures 
in the air. The bear is the animal which is regarded as the 
ruler of the earth. His supernatural character is shown by the 
manner in which he is pictured, for there always is a great 



RACES AND RELIGIONS IN AMtRICA. 



3S5 



glaring eye looking out from every part of the body of the 
bear; his paws, his different limbs, his head, and his ears have 
eyes. In fact, he seems to be all eyes. This is, perhaps, a 
modification of the previous system in which the eyes were 
looking out from the solid rock, but in this case the bear seems 
to be alive, and yet possessed by a hidden spirit. The myths are 
very different from those which prevailed among the tribes of 
the Interior, for they relate to the adventures of sea monsters, 
who had the power of transforming themselves into human be- 
ings, and again into animals. This was the case with ihe totems 
of the hunter tribes, for transformation was very common and 
many stories are told of the Iritjks played by means of this 
transformation. There was such a correspondance between the 
animal totems and the Nature power-;, that the animals were 
supposed to dwell at the different points of the compass and 
send the winds and the rains. Th<-se were not strictly totems, 
at least not personal or individual totems, but the mingling of 
the totems with the Nature powers personified, formed the 
basis of a great variety of myths, which are very interesting. 

The sea is supposed to hide another divinity called the 
while killer. This is a fabulous creature, and is capable of 
changing its shape, for there are many stories in which the 
creature appears as a great canoe, but is transformed into a 
sea animal, There are figures upon the fronts of the houses, 
which represent this whale killer as held in the claws of the 
raven, thus indicating that the sea gods and gods of the sky 
have been drawn close together. In this figure the eye is very 
conspicuous, but the winged feathers and the vertebrae of the 
bird and of the whale are also clearly seen. The double- 
headed serpent is generally carried in the hand, and is a sym- 
bol wliich served an important part in the dances. It is called 
the sisu! and is generally worn in front of the stomach. The 
human face and ey?s may be seen at the center, the animal 
head and eye at either end, with the serpent body and scales 
between the heads. This illustrates the habit of bringing to- 
getlier their divinities into one object. 

The stories are numerous which celebrate the exploits of 
these various creatures, but they all convey the idea that they 
are supernatural beings and to be worshiped as well as feared. 
There are many dances and religious ceremonies in which the 
natives cover themselves with blankets and put upon their 
heads great masks representing the head and jaws of the wolf. 
This suggests the idea that human beings are sometimes trans- 
formed into animals, and reminds us of the transformat on 
which is so common in all parts of the continent, for there 
were no hard and fast lines between the different animals, or 
between animals and men. The supposition formerly was that 
they were de-^igned as the totems of tiie tribes, but the opinion 
now is that thev embodied the mvthologies and represent the 
villages, as each v.Ilage was founded by a supernatural being, 



J 



f 

I 
I 



356 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

who gave power and authority to the chief, or human founder, 
to represent him; the result was that the different crests were 
carved into the poles, some of them representing the super- 
natural being, the bird or fish, or some other animal; also iht 
crest of the village chief, and the crest of the different de- 
scendants of the first chief. It is to be noticed that the human-j 
izing tendency was very strong, so that all the birds and ani- 
mals and creatures of the sea were spoken of as having human 
attributes; the :ye, the symbol of humanity, being placed in) 
all parts of ihe bodies, whether beasts or birds. 

Mr. Hill-Tout says: "The sculptures and paintings wen. 
sacrificial and not totemistic in character." The son inherited 
his father's rank and property, with all his carvings and crest! 
and emblems, which were largely commtmorative in character. 
There was a tendency among all these people to humanizi 
everything. The raven, the wolf and the bear, and all othei 
animals were humanized, and stories were told about them, at] 
if they were human beings. Conversation is held bctwecUff 
men and women and the animals, and even between thft; 
heavenly bodies — the sun, moon, and the stars. Th' 
no lines which separated the material from the animal. lh< 
animal from the human, the human from the divine or supci 
natural being. An immense amount of mythology has ace 
mulated in this way, for everything on the earth, in the air, : 
the sea or sky, whether animal, men and women, or heavenly 
bodies, are mingled together, intermarry and converse, and their 
adventures are very numerous, 

V. There is a form of religion still existing in the interior 
of the continent, which well deserves our attention, and we 
hope to describe it more at length in the future. It is found 
among the Navajocs. who dwelt among the mountains of Utah 
and Colorado, This religion consists in the worship of the 
elements, such as the clouds, the sky. ihe rainbow, the moun>j 
tains, lakes, hills, and also animals, birds, and olher creatures,] 
which inhabited them. The mythology is very beautilul and 
picturesque, and shows that the love of nature abounded with 
all this people. There is no mythology that is more beautiful 
than that which comes lo us from the tribes who dwelt in the 
deep interior of the continent. Their mythology was founded 
upon their religion, and their religion sprang from the love of 
nature. We may call it superstition, yet it was a superstition 
that peopled everything with harmless divinities. Even the 
serpent, which was generally supposed lo be treacherous and, 
hostile and dangerous i"! represented as a benefactor, and^i 
always bestowing gifts upon the people; in fact, the serpent is' 
a symbol of the rain-cloud, which is always a welcome visitor. 
The people watch the sky closely, for their very existence de- 
pends upon having rain. 

There is a distinction between the religion of the Navajoes, 
who were formerly hunters but now arc shcperds. 



and the^^H 



RACES AND RELIGIONS IN AMERICA. 



Piicblos. The Navajoes were mountaineers, 
yet they retain the same religion they had 
when in their wild stale. Their myth- 
ology is very bcauiiful and abounds with 
allusions to all the beautiful things of na- 
ture—clouds, sunbeams, sparkling waters, 
crystals, rocks of the mouniams. mosses, 
twigs of trees, animals which inhabit the 
caves and rocks, birds among the trees, 
supernatural beings that are in the clouds, 
divinities that dwell on the mountain tops; 
all are mingled together, and the strangest 
fancies are indulged in, in describing them. 
There seems to have been, also, a deeper 
apprehension of the meaning of nature 
than most people have, certainly much 
deeper and more varied than anytl.ing 
found among the white population of thai 
region or any other. Everything was 
shadowy and filled with supernatural 
creatures. 

VI. There was a form of religion which 
prevailed among the tribes of the Interior, 
which consisted m the worship of the Na- 
turepowers.under the figure of the serpent. 

There are occasional figures upon the 
pottery found in the mounds, and upon 
the shields and other ornaments found 
among the Pueblos, which represent 
winged figures. These can hardly be 
called totems, for they are more like 
mythological creatures. They may be re- 
garded as connecting links between totems 
and a higher form of symbolism. In will 
be seen in the figure that the serpenis 
have feathered heads and large wings; the 
body is open, so as to show the heart. 
The sun symbol is connected with each 
winged serpent- The figures on the 
shields have wings, but they also have the 
serpent below the feet. 

These serpents were also regarded as 
divinities which ruled over the different 
parts of creation. There was, however, 
the same superstition that prevailed else- 
where on the continent, that there were 
supernatural beings everywhere present, 
in the sky above, in the depths of the earth 
below, in different directions upon the 
«arth; and that all the elements,— the air, 






THE AMERICAS ANTIQUARIAN. 

the cartfa. (ire, aad water, were haunted or possessed 
uasccn creatures. The main difference between this systei 
and that which prevailed farther north, was that the : 
peat took its place in the sky, instead of a raven, as it wai 
the person i6catioa of the cloud and was supposed to brint 
the rains. This lurni^hcs aa explanation for the celebrate^ 
snake dance. The people, it appears, were 
with offering iheir pia>ers to the cloud divinities, or making' 
symbols ot the tain clouds, when they perform 
ceremonies, but they must have some live object which thejrl 
could hold in their hands and mouth, and realize that they hadi 
brought U under their power. This was, perhaps, not thought J 
out delibeiaicly. but came to them from their habit of putting ' 
all their praters into sacred dramas and religious ceremonies, 
and ro-ikin^ everything as concrete as possible. 

It is to be noticed here that no prayer was effective unless 
it was symbolized and made substantial by something thatl 




could be seen. It was on this account that so many frames, 
which are called altars, are erected, consisting of painted slats 
of wood, while in front of them are other figures of the rain- 
clouds, surrounded by rods, the ears of corn and other objects 
placed as offerings in front of ihe altars. This form of reli- 
gion is, perhaps, more reasonable than that which prevailed in 
the region of the North, for it consists of sacred dramas in 
which the prayers of the people are acted out, the ceremonies 
all proving to be very carefully observed, and there is gener- 
ally a spirit of reverence among the people. The heavenly 
bodies arc closely watched, especially the sun in its move- 
ments through the sky. The superstition is that when it ap- 
proaches the solstitial point, that there must be a prayer and 
religious ceremony, or it will never return. 




RACES AND RELIGIONS IN AMERICA. 



359 



The Pueblos have a mythology which abounds with stories 
ut the various animals, such as the wolf, the bear, the mole, 
well as the serpent. The eagle is very prominent in their 
hotogy. They carry with them shields upon which are in- 
hed or painted in different colors hunnan figures, with tur- 
'd caps upon their heads, symbolizing the mountains, a bear 
iding on either side, a serpent below the feet, thus showing 
: the close association of animals, human beings, and 
nilies, all mingled togetherand surrounded by the elements 
[lalure. The serpent figures vary conspicuously in their 
.hology. Much can be learned from the study of their 
^ious customs, and especially comparing the myths and 
:monies common among them, with those which prevailed 
ing the wild tribes scattered about them. 
VI!. We shall next consider the religion of the so-called 
lized races, such as the Nahuas, Mayas, and others situated 







VIexico and Central America, including the Quichuas in 
u. The religion of the Mayas was fundamently the same as 
: of the Nahuas. Most of the gods were deified heroes, 
ugh we occasionally find traces of an older sun-worship, 
the conjecture is that an original astral worship once 
t-ailcd. 

This is illustrated by the cuts. One of which represents 
frescoes on the walls of a buried temple in Honduras. In 
>e trescoes human forms are rovered with animal heads 
surrounded by figures representing plumed serpents. An- 
:r cut (Fig. 12) represents paintings from Monte Alban in 
Kico. In these an animal headed creature seems to be facing 
aped altar. The significance of the picture is unknown. An- 
crcut (Fig. 13) represents a row of idols, which has also been 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAI*?'' 

discovered in Honduras. There are no altars in front of these 
and so they form an exception to the general rule, for in most 
cases where human images are seen, there are altars in front of 
them: many of them being in the shape of animals or huge 
dragons or nondescript creatures. 

Vill. There was a form of religion which prevailed in 
Peru. It consisted mainly in the deifying of the Incas. who 
were regarded as the sons of the sun, and so, in a measure, 
divine. The symbols in Peru were, however, mainlv images 
of the sun and moon. These were placed on the walls of the 




Fig. ij.— idols in Honduras. 

temples, the best specimens of which were seen by tl":^' h* 
Spaniards at Quito. It appears that sun-dials were numeror- ^cvA 
and that from these the Peruvian priests calculated the seasc 
and by this means regulated all the affairs of the natioi 
There were no such carved slataes in Peru, as have been d 
covered in Central America, and no altars which betoken 
that sacrifies were offered to kings; yet the government _; ol 
Peru was based on the idea that the Inca was superior to»^aJi 
and that the Inca race belonged to a different order. 




THE MAYAS OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 

BY C, STANILAND WAKE. 

We have recently been reperusing a book which, if its con- 
clusions are correct, should be regarded as the most remarkable 
work that has proceeded from the pen of an American author. 
We refer to Dr. Augustus Le Piongeon's ** Queen Moo and the 
Egyptian Sphinx,'* published in iSg6. The book contains much 
valuable information as to the archaeological remains which are 
so abundant in Yucatan, illustrated by many excellent plates. 
For this, all antiquarians interested in the ancient civilization of 
the American continent must be highly grateful to Dr. Le 
Plongeon. Why, then, have they practically agreed to taboo the 
work he has done? We do not refer to the ** students of Ameri- 
can archaeology and universal history," whom he specially ad- 
dresses in his Preface, but to ** the so-called learned men of our 
day," who, he says, **are the first to oppose new ideas and the. 
bearers of these." We sympathize with Dr. Le Plongeon in 
this remark, but, then, we must add. that the new ideas, if 
true, will gradually force acceptance. This is general experi- 
ence, and those who first opposed such ideas become their 
strongest advocates. Perhaps the time for this has not yet 
arrived, but surely, if it is to be so, we ought to see signs of its 
approach. Dr. Le Plongeon's views have been before the public 
ever since the publication of his *' Sacred Mysteries Among the 
Mayas and the Quiches/* in which work he gives the Maya 
alphabet side by side with the ancient Egyptian, to show their 
similarity. It may be that the very boldness of the author's 
conclusions has prejudiced learned men against them, particu- 
larly those who might be supposed to welcome outside light on 
the subject of their researches. Unfortunately specialists are 
very apt to look with an unfavorable eye on anything outside 
of their own particular specialty, particularly if the work of an 
"amateur," or, let us say, a non-professional. So that, in the 
present case, the very attempt to show a connection between 
Maya-land and Egypt may be expected to arouse the opposi- 
tion of both Americanists and Egyptologists. And yet surely 
there must be some specialist sufficiently open-minded to in- 
vestigate the truth of the statement, made by Dr. Le Plongeon. 
with reference to the legend on the frieze of the temple of 
Kabul at Izamal, that *' anyone who can read hieratic Egyptian 
inscriptions will have no difficulty in translating said legend by 
the aid of a Maya dictionary." If no such person has done so. 
We think it must be because there is something radically wrong 
in the author's explanation of the facts. 

To an ordinary reader this explanation is so extraordinary^ 
Qiat a prejadice argainst it is almost certain to be aroused in the 



^Sa THE AMERICAS ANTIQUARIAN. 

mind. Of course there are exceptions, and those who are more 
interested in occult matters than in those of everyday experi- 
ence must welcome some of Dr. Le Plongeou's dissertations. 
We (?o no: question the truth of his occult observations, but we 
doubt whether they give support to the far-reaching conclu- 
sions he has arrived at. How can the following statement be 
accepted as fact, without overwhelmmg and detailed proof, 
especially as the Mayas appear to have been limited to a small 
port. on or the American continent: "Like the English of to- 
day, the Mayas sent colonists all over the earth. These ear- 
ned with them the language, the traditions, the architecture, 
astronootv. cosmo^onv. and other sciences — in a word, the 
civ:.:::it.on ot their m^-^thcr countr>'. . . We find vestigesol 
it. ar.d ot :he:r language, in alt hi-torical nations of antiquity 
in Asia. Ainca, and Europe. . . It is easy to follow their 
tracks across the Pacinc to India, by the imprints of their 
hands dipped m a red liquid and pressed against the walls of 
temples, caves, and other places looked upon as sacred, to im- 
plore the benison of the gods — also of their name Maya, given 
to the bar.ar.a tree, symbol of their country, whose broad leaf 
IS yet a token of hospitality among the natives of the islands; 
then a.o: <: the shores of the Indian Ocean and those of the 
Pcrrs.ar. «:>.*.: t.^ the mouth of the Euphrates; up that river to 
Babylor.. the renowned City of the Sun; thence across the 
Syrian viisert to the valley of the Nile, where they finally set- 
tled, and ^d\e the name of their mother country to a district 
ot N.:r:a >:a..ir.^ it Maiu or Maioo. After becoming firmly 
<'>tab.ishc.: m K^\ pt. they sent colonists to Syria. These 
reachcvi a> far north as Moui.t Taurus, founding on their way 
settlements a'onj: the coast of the Mediterranean, in Sidon, 
T\ re. 'he wi'.ey o: the Orontes, and again on the banks of the 
t.:'ohr.\tv>. to tne north ot Babylon, in Mesopotomia." If this 
scrus . : m-.^rat.ons ever took place, then the civilization of the 
>r^ho". . v\ . r'.c. with the p.^ssible exception of China, Corea and 
Iao n has been v.er.\eo. from Central America, a country of a 
tew m ..... ot i: h.-btants in its palmiest days. 

I; .< tr.ie that l\ Le Plongeon finds references in Maya 
ivco'.v'.- to the viestr.iction of avast territory in the Atlantic 
v^'v v\*-.^. w ::h lu.irl V a/, its inhabitants, sixty millions in number, 
.vV.v^ VAX >..-., e tornieo. the stock from which the Maya sprang. 
M ::.c v'c>tr.ic:ion o: the Island of Atlantis, which is sup- 
^H^>v v'. :o h.ivc bv en t e last remnant of that territory, much has 
ovO'.\ wr.tten. The ancient Egyptians appear to have had a 
t:avi.:.on ot such a catAsirophe, and if an Atlantis ever really 
oxNtvvi. theie it'iAv h.we been communication between North- 
oM\ AtiuM and Central .\merica thousands of years ago. It is 
Nvitb the ancient Egvptians. more especially. Dr. Le Plongeon 
N\v^;;M connoci the Mayas, going so far as to say that they twice 
ov^.oni/evi h i^ypt. ano. that Queen Moo erected the oldest monu- 
ment the Sphinx — to the memory of her assassinated brother- 



THE MAYAS OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 



3«5 



husband Prince Coh, ruler of Yucatan, from which she had to 
flee to escape the vengeance of his brother Aac, whom she re- 
fused to marry. 

That the ancient Egyptians had knowledge of the Ameri- 
can continent is very probable, and we are inclined to think 
that the Atlantean continent referred to by some early writers, 
as pointed out by Dr. Le I'longeon, was actually America itself. 
There may have been a catastrophe destroying much land in 
the region of the Antilles, but the ■* destruction " of Atlantis. 
was probably only a met;)phor denoting that America had be- 
come lost to navigators. The peoples of the eastern Mediter- 
ranean were the great navigators of the ancient world, and 
the e is little doubt but that they reached this continent. Dr. 
Le Hongeon points out that Diodorus Siculus attributes the 
discovery of the Western Continent to the Phcenicians. He 
affirms that the Carthaginians reached the shores of Yucatan 
at least five hundied years before Chri-t, and he claims to have 
discovered portraits of Phct-nicians at Chichen. If the decree 
mentioned by Aristotle as having been enacted by the Senate 
of Carthage, toward the year 509 B. C, to stem the current of 
emigration that had set toward the Western Lands, refers, as is ■ 
supposed by Dr. Le I'lo igeon, to America, then there must 
have been constant intercourse between this continent and 
Northern A'rica. Why. ihen, did this intercourse cease F 

D.'. Lc Plongeon says, with great propriety, that it followed 
from the destruction of Carthage and the supremacy of the 
Komans, who were not navigators. 

That there was a communication between the two conti- 
nents for a long period is highly probable, at least, and by such 

-a fact would we explain the existence of various similarities 

between the civilization of the Old and the New Worlds. But 
the current runs in a direction opposite to that suggested by 
Dr. Le Plongeon. It is now known that Kgypt and Babylonia 
lA'cre great centers of culture six thousand years before the 

commencement of the Christian era, and there is nothing what- 
ever in Central America lo justify the assignment of half that 
period to its culture." None the less Dr. Le Plongeon is to be 

-congratulated on the good work he has done in collecting in- 
formation which will aid largely some-day in deciding the im- 
portant question of American origins. 



•Thi |»at diy dF AngliDr-Thoii 

■■Ball of Cambodin, in 1h. yto 441 F 
UiDdoo >nd Baitdhiitii^<l>i<iicci. 

L 






3*^1 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



-DKNEHOLES' OF ESSEX AND KENT, ENGLAND. 

BY A. L. LEWIS. 

Not far from the banks of the Thames, between London 
AnA tiravcscnd, and on each side of the river, there are some 
deep narrow shafts, at the bottom of which are chambers cut 

_ out of the chalk; these are 

>^JJ^^ called *' dentholes," and, so 

^4^^« " far as I know, are not found 

anywhere else, and I think it 
inay be worth while to place a 
short description of them be- 
fore the readers of The Ameri- 
can Antiquarian, so that if any 
similar excavations are to be 
found in America, a compari- 
son may be made between 
them. 

At a place called Hangman's 

Wood, near Grays in Es!sex,on 

the nonh bank of the Thames, 

there were more than fiity of 

•^/ OS in <ix acres; at this place the chalk is cov- 

.>: '>A.H't sand, with a little gravel on the top, 

:v , : l^!fo tcrt wide were sunk through these into 

^rt :s^o:-holcs were cut into the sides of the 




#«4^M^ 



I . X 






^0 



X . ^ 



nN 



', > .^: :he partitions between the 
x',: c:: sunding. as pillars. (Sec 



V N 



i^ Ji' 



, ",; Atr-i a: the foot of each shaft, 
V -X ,k *v^ e.Ai^^cv; *ince its formation (what 



DENHOLES OF ESSEX AND KENT. 365 

-Skre at least as old as the Roman occupation, and perhaps much 
older). Here and there the roofs have broken in, because they 
^^^rere cut too near the sand, and in several instances a chamber 
belonging to one shaft had been cut into, in making a chamber 
for another. 

Several "deneholes" of the same kind are found near Berley, 
on the south side of the Thames, where the strata are similar 
to tho^e at Grays. It has been found that the gravel and sand 
taken out in making the shafts had been spread over the ground 
between them, so as to preserve its level; while the chalk cut 
GUI of the chambers had all been taken awav, and it has been 
supposed that these ** deneholes " were merely chalk mines, but, 
as the chalk comes to the surface a very little way off, it is not 
likely that people would have sunk shafts sixty feet deep to 
get at it, although when dug out it was probably used in some 
way or other, and it seems, on the whole, that the hypothesis 
that the "deneholes" were the secret storehouses for grain, 
said by the Romans, to have been made by the Britons along 
the banks of the Thames, furnishes the most probable explana- 
tion of their existence. 



4H- 



ORIGIN OF THE ART OF WRITING. 

BY HENRY PROCTOR. 

Man wrote before he spoke. The gesture-language which 
preceded articulated speech, was a mode of picture-writing in 
the air, which led up by degrees to drawing on the giound, on 
bones, on stones, and on the bark of trees. Doing was earlier 
than saying, and dumb drama was enacted first. North Ameri- 
can Indians still make use of gesture-language, and African 
nations, such as the Waganda, frequently have recourse to 
drawing figures on the ground to illustrate imperfect oral 
description, and show surprising cleverness in the truthfulness 
of their rough and ready delineations.* 

Leibnitz remarked that the the Chinese writing might seem 
to have been invented by a deaf person; its foundation being 
so like that of gesture-signs addressed to the eye. The oldest 
Chinese characters are called Liang-Hing, that is images or 
ideographs. A considerable number of these are identical 
with the Egyptian hieroglyphics. A comparison of certain 
Egyptian signs with those of North American Indians indi- 
cate a common origin. The Egyptians, in fact, engraved the 
same symbols which the Indians still figure in the air. 

Things are portrayed before thought. Men thought in 
things, just as the de^f and dumb think and speak today. As 
one ereat writer remarks: ** They were thingers rather than 
thinRers." From writing in the air to writing on the ground is 

•' Natoral Genesis," Vol. i. (Massey). 



■ii *:iC£i:C\>' ANTir.CARIAN. 



b Ak~« 


j^ — 


— ^ — ■ 


^rziimt 


Z'—C! 


r- ^^w - — - 


7^* - * 


W." 7 '-i 


- "^S 


»T«. ^- 


♦ — ^^ 


» *^^ - 


.^ ... 




— ~""i^ V 


^ -' ' ^ 




. - ■ 


w»*i:^ 


^ 


« • . ..J 


VT .• 


.* - 


«- "-■ 


•c- ' 


■ »^ ^ ■ 


- ' ^ 


¥crr . 


_->i - 


■"■* " 


^11- i 




* - *- 


-iJi > ::: 


- . " ^' 


...^T V 


■ • ■ . V.' ^ 


• * 

*•- 


• 


i:^ r.-. 




■ ;.: ; 



r: V 



..... ■ • . "* V 



1;%:'- - . - »- 






1 . . . 



I . 



asf^as-ici*: =:-;3. azd thus wc have ideo- 
:z ir;ri*. A.id rh.a L«ccrmani in his 
•ic.c.ja i.cciccc* aSrms as an incon- 

•■■^r-T'Ti :z v.zicg "ave originated in 
: i r ::-rt :: :ii« cie.:: itself, and aftcr- 
:"::-^?. :zt ian:-; zizzircs were used to 
i-iii r :: :.":- -r :<: priTitive writings 
::j 1- : :.- -!<:: irrc-.r' any sound; they 
:e-:cT: :: v:rii. hiving an existeiice 
Lji.-T - ; t: i. :r:r. jcc:a::on. and the 

_: ;.r :!.:■: -.=::zc: :r:ai :"-e written Ian- 
: :: i_ : . , i-ir^ti-i :r.i :-e wiihoui know- 



:ere was a gradual 
:^ Tich si^n with an 
:tr :j syl abism was 

J""-:/'. ' came to be 
: for father, 



V 



; V : - 1 : 



:re » ' 



* t * : • - 



^ . - —I 






bv 



-^V- N - 



- ^ "*» 



^.'te-^ 



- -L r -: ;- ;«.>-:: z-'.:r.: :he syllabic stage. 

•- i*j.M" f-vr-T'.^t- : a sir.gle syllable, 

: i *- : -. ■ :: irirrr: ritive. Thus the 

• - ■ ^- ' : : "-.'■-: ---i- "i:?. I: we -dd to this 

.- : 1-: .: :!:: — -> r.: -.:-.: "; :: the "key'' 

:.-. r -«:_r. -" :r sjir : if *hc si^n for 

- :- :> i :ry ir. - s: :.::?.. The ele- 

," • -r-ic .i";:-s^7 r.T.f:?: :: .c*: phoncrtics and 

■•• ;.;--.*-- :r re i -"-' ^- '" r ' ^<'"^5'-^'e I aiion. 

:rr J* r.i?r >> xc : l:r :. r :r iiic writing to a 



-^. •*=- 



.v^ 



iti .xT* * 



- - -j i :\.::r.tr ?:er :r. :re :orm.ition of the 

: ^ : • : . .: r : : :r. : : -' r. j the sy . . able, and repre- 

^ -:: s jr.s.tht j r.scr.ar: ar. : :r.e vowel. The 

^ i \.> -• :-- ;r~ rr. :st \v:i;!v-kr.cwn o: ail hiero- 

'„«?.•- ---" rr:-l:.^::!\ c: re.r.c used. >o.tic as simple 

^*^ ^.,^^ rni ^--.-c'-r."- >. ir.a: tne 5;ime word might 

il. :r:rr. \:.'.. :decs:raphic. represtnting 

aic jiK-.rr: -: rer:e>rr.:irc a sound: and the latter 

*^^ •tnc^ A jiarctic . r >yl'.a: ic. For further convenience 

n« T ^r.'^lvphics wt-rc first simplined. until they 

/n«--«ir3C sti^e. arc r.r.i.'.y the demotic or enchoriaU 

*" ,t;j|^s»cst nearly : : the cursive writing of to-day. 

^^^^,^», were used si:rultaneo"sly for many cen- 

_1 hieroglyphics did not fall into disuse 

"^iiciiy F. C. bu: the written hieroglyphs were 

^T-^^xis. especially for religious texts. • 

* ' '55 lo prove tha: the Phoenician and. conse- 




S READ BEFORE THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 

cjucntly. our modern alphabets, were derived from the Egypt- 
ian, but from the evideoce at present available it seems prob- 
able that the Egyptian hieroglyghics were not the ancestor of 
any system other than tht-ir own. The tendency of research 
ia this direction goes to show, rather that many systems of 
iticg were invented and gr^w up independently of each other. 



I 



lOME PAPERS READ BEFORE THE BRITISH 
ASSOCIATION IN 1904. 



Group Marriage in Australian Tribes. 

Mr. A. W. Howilt read a paper on "Group Marriage in 
Australian Tribes." in which he confirms the position taken by 
Mr. L, H. Morgan, and observes that the native tribes which 
surround Lake Eyre, in Central Australia, had two forms of 
marriage. One followed upon betrothal of children by their 
mothers, and the other was the subsequent marriage of the 
woman to a younger brother of her husband. On ceremonial 
occasions this laiter form of marriage was extended in ihe 
tribe by the allotment to each of men and women who were 
already allotted to each other under one or other of the iwo 
marriages. This group-marriage also occurred in other tribes 
in Southeast Australia, either in the form which it had in the 
Lake Eyre tribes, or as a survival of custom. It was shown by 
Ihe system of relationship in the Australian tribes to have been 
at one time common to all. In the Lake Eyre tribes there was 
female descent with group-marriage. In other tribes in which 
group-marriage was merely a survival, or was merely indicated 
by the terminology of relationship, there had been more or 
less an approach to a form of individual marriage, accompanied 
by a change from female to male descent. Changes such as 
these wcreattended also by alteration of the social organization 
of the tribes. In one direction there had been a segmental ion 
of the tribe from a division of two intermarrying exogamous 
moieties of the tribal community to four such divisions, and 
finally into eight, with a change also in the line of descent. In 
the other direction there had been a partial or complete loss 
of this division of the community into four and eight scp;menis. 
The tribe had become organisred on a geographical basis in'o a 
number of local groups, and these localities had become exo- 
gamous and intermarrying. In these changes in the organisa- 
tion of the tribes, the line of descent had passed from the 
female to the male line. In the Lake Eyre tribes a grou|> of 
totems was attached to each exogamous society. These re- 
mained in existence in the segmentation into four and eight 
groups. In those tribes where the organization of the tiibe 
bad become local, the totem groups had either become more 




lJ 



3S8 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

or ie^s extinct, or bad changed in extreme cases into magical 
namtrs without influence in marriage. 

Break-up of the Matriarchatk. 

Mr. R. S. Lepper contributed a paper on the " Break-up of 
the Matriarchate/* in which he considered the matriarchal 
c fjntry of Souihern India, its former wide and present narrow 
extent, and as a stage of civilization. He indicated that as a 
working social system the advantages of the matriarchate were 
that It led to love marriages, terminable at pleasure and leaving 
the mother the custody of the children, whilst it facilitated 
natural selection and secured the liberty of woman. Its dis- 
advantages were that it conflicted with the natural affection of 
father for-child, cau>cd the frequent desertion of the wife by 
the husband, and went against the desire to provide for wife 
an 1 children independant of the matriarcnal clan. In respect 
to the effect of progress on the matriarchate, great difficulty 
anise in alienating or even developing the land of the clan, 
Ov\in4 to the necessity for getting the consent of every clans 
man. for the matriarchate put the husband in the position of 
tenant at will, never secure from eviction in favor of a success- 
ful rival. Nor was the wife ever sure of her husband's faith- 
fulness. There thus arose a consequent dislike of the system 
by both husband ^nd wife in cases of true love marriages. The 
tendency was for the matriarchate to pass into the patriarchate 
when the latter was the highest system known as practicable, 
owing to the unsettled state of society. After some remarks 
on the matriarchate as a political form, upon the patriarchal- 
matriarchal feud, and attempts that had been made to modify 
the matriarchate. Mr. Lepper concluded by saying that the 
revolt against the matriarchate had been very marked during 
the last twenty-five years. 

Classification Sociale. 

M. Kdmond Demolins, of Paris, in a paper on ''Classifica- 
tion Sociale. ' gi\en in French, explained that his object was to 
substitute for the elementary and artificial classification of 
Lc Play, which was to-day insufficient, a natural classification 
of human societies. This work was the result of twenty-five 
years of unceasing stud\- since the death of his master, Frederic 
Lr I'lav; and as a result he had undertaken the work of mak- 
\n<!; a classification of social t\'pes with reference to their total 
and general combination of characteristics, now better known 
th m formerlv. 'hanks to the progress of science, rather than 
upon the artificial classification on the lines of one character- 
istic only. 

Okh.in ()i Gri:i:k Th.^gedv. 

Professor \V. Ridf^eway read an interesting paper on an 
anthr()f)olo^ical \iew of the origin of tragedy, in which he ex- 
|)l.iiiu'd that in the case of Greek tragedy scholars were agreed 



PAPERS READ BEFORE THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 369 

until recently that it originated in the worship of Dionysus, 
that it was invented by the Dorians, that the Satyric drama 
was invented by the same Dorians, and that the thymele was 
from the outset the altar of Dionysus. He considered that all 
thc-e propositions were either wholly, or in part, untrue. The 
evidence pointed to the conclusion that the drama in Greece 
originrited in the worship of the dead long before the cult of 
Dionysus spread from Thrace. The claim of the Dorians, 
though quoted by Aristotle in the Poetics, was not endorsed by 
him. The only really Dionysiac part of the tragedy was the 
Satyiic drama, which was of northern origin, and was appended 
to the old local ritu d when the cult of Dionysus was super- 
imposed on that of Adrastus or other local hero. And the 
recitation of a hero's fate at his tomb indicated that the thy- 
melcr was originally the shrine or tomb of the local hero. The 
development effected by Thespis consisted, not in the intro- 
duction of an actor into the ceremony, or in the use of '* tragic 
dances" for moral purposes, but in the separation of what h^d 
hitherto been a piece of religious ritual from the local shrine, 
and the conversion of it into a distinct form of literary per- 
formance which could be enacted anywhere. It was in this 
sense that Thespis ** carried about his plays on wagons." The 
analogy of medieval drama was exact; originally a piece of 
religious ritual performed in church, and based on a particular 
set of incidents, it became detached both from locality and 
topic, and fell into the hands of "strolling players." 

Royal Tomb of Mena. 

Mr. J. Garstang read a paper on the so-called " Royal Tomb 
of Mena, at Negadeh (Nagada) in Upper Egypt." He showed 
photographic slides of it, and explained that his excavations 
had been supplementary to those of M. de Morgan, and that 
the results suggested that the tomb was really that of Mena's 
inothcr. 

Interment of the Early Iron Age. 

Mr. F. R. Coles and Dr. T. H. Bryce presented a paper on 
^n ** Interment of the Early Iron Age found at Moredun, near 
Edinburgh." It was the first completely attested instance of 
an interment associated with relics of the Early Iron Age in 
Scotland, and was discovered in Aug^ust, 1903. The human 
remains were contained in a cist. 4 feet long, 2 feet 3 inches 
wide, and 22 inches deep, covered by several flagstones of varv- 
ing size. The relics comprised a fibula, a ring brooch or buckle, 
and a circular open unornamented pin-head. A comparison of 
the two skulls with those of the district, showed agreement in 
general characters, and rendered it probable that the type now 
prevailing in Midlothian was already established when the in- 
terment took place. 

Dr. T. H. Bryce also read a paper on "A Phase of Transi- 



J70 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

don between the Chambered Cairns and Closed Cists in the 
Southwest Corner of Scotland." 

Mr. R. T. Gunther made some observations upon cimanita» 
a well-known Neapolitan charm, consisting of the reproductioo 
in silver of a sprig of rue from which it got its Italian name, to 
which was appended in most examples a large number of sub- 
»idiar>' charms. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides and 
examples of the charm. 

Professor E. B. Foul ton exhibited a series of palaeolithic 
implements from ihe northeast coast of the Isle of Wight, a 
locality in which palaeolithic implements, he said, had not pre- 
viously been found. The series exhibited every stage from the 
simple dake to the finished implement, clearly indicating that 
the implements had been manufactured in situ. 

Professor A. Macalistcr exhibited a series of skulls from 
the excavation made at Gezer by the Palestine Exploration 
Fond, representing the ethnology of the thi»'d and fourth strata. 
A$:he peoples of thr first and second strata practised creraa- 
tioo. >ku!Is from these strata were not represented in the series. 



-»►-«- 



SOPHISTRY ON THE SUBJECT OF COMPARATIVE 

RELIGIONS* 

BV FREDEKILK BLISS, D. D- , LL. D. 

The tree-thinking theologian will declare that when he frees 
hiniselt trom Christian dogmas, he is the representative of the 
'*ur.iversal science of religion." Single religions, such as the 
Chr:s:ian. the Jewish, the Mohammedan, are onlv the material 
out ot «h:ch the universal science is composed. That is exactly 
315 It 5 vkith history, whose single facts should be only material 
tor soir.eth.ni; general to be built up out of them. Let us take 
aa::r. sn: as an example. Every man has a soul, even the 
N;r.::c an.: :he Red Indian; therefore animism, i. e, the worship 
o: so. s. car. be found among all peoples. Everywhere men 
fecoi:r.:e the soul as the most imperishable essence of the 
ma*, an.: thev reel also that the departed must be living in a 
h <^er torm of existence. 

A.*- vism has been the ground form of religion among all 
|.Kv -o vS. aro. out of it all religions have been evolved; just as, 
acvo.. -^ to Darwin, out of imperfect life more perfect con- 
liiiua. \ arose Vet the Greeks, so far as we know, honored 
tnoi ooao whT.e thev paid a higher worship to the gods of 
hvJivc;i a!*o or the earth and ot the under- world. The proof, 
tiKic:o;c. ta-.s completely with them, and with the Romans 
ajK. : ic lc;::or5s as \ve'/.. The sophists, English and German^ 
tiv u^ sio *^hat s mvoossible, namely to explain religion in all 
it> oiiKx, :h<r \ west ar.vi the highest, from the nature of man* 

• iwN»»«v** :»v^ u*^ S\vv^»*t^»T n««* »>» October. 1904. 



SOPHISTRY IN COMPARATIVE RELIGION. 37i 

But religion is a relation between God and man, between the 
Eternal and beings who are of yesterday. Now how can the 
relation between them be explained from the weaker factor 
alone, the infinitely stronger one being completely ignored? 
Is it not atheism to suppose that religion arose in man and 
was only evolved out of man? Can any facts to prove it be 
found among the Israelites? None. Though there are at least 
so-called survivals, remains of an earlier faith driven out by 
the worship of Jehovah. 

ASSYRIOLOGY AND THE HiSTORY OF RELIGION. 

Certain Assyriologists derive everything from Babylon. 
The Odyssey, the seven Kings of Rome, and the Athepian 
Tyranicides. A spirit of perverseness, has entered into them. 
There was a book which attempted in quite a comprehensive 
manner to carry back Ne\y Testament and Old Testament 
narratives to Babylon. Eberhard Schrader, one of the found- 
ers of Assyriology, had published this book, ** The Cuneiform 
Inscriptions and the Old Testament," which gives all the 
parallel cases and coincidences between the two. It was 
strictly scientific, and very tedious for the uninitiated. The 
third edition had become necessary, and the author, on account 
of his health, had to resign its preparation to , others, quos 
honoris causa non nomino. They have removed what was most 
scientific, namely, the Assyrian texts, substituted for them 
plenty of sophistry, and even enlarged the title to include the 
Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, and the New Testament. By one 
of the editors the following subjects are referred to Babylonian 
originals: the Divine Sonship; Messiah Christ and His fight 
with the devil and with Antichrist; His death. His three days' 
sojourn in the grave; His descent into hell; His resurrection 
and ascension to heaven. 

But between those Assyriologists and us there is this differ- 
ence, we trust to impress even the twentieth centuiy by scientific 
facts; whilst they fear that, since everything in Babylon was 
inferior to what can be found in Greece and Rome, and since, 
moreover, the Assyrians were an unspeakably abominable peo- 
ple, they could not make themselves interesting without soph- 
istry. 

Honoring the Dead. 

When anyone died, the relatives tore their clothes. 
Why? To pay divine honor to the dead, says one; so 
liere we have animism. Or, says another, slaves wore 
tattered garments, and they also wore sackcloth; therefore 
the mourner, in tearing his garments, till he could get hold of 
sackcloth, declared himself to be the slave of the departed. 
The plant hellebore, which grew luxuriously near the town of 
Anticyra, was used as a remedy for mental disturbances, which 
were attributed to black gall. But now comes another, and 



-'"- r -AN. 

t: :'. be:w..'c;; :■ 



•: tearing, nor of the 
.-.-ir.wc-.t C : . 3^r of the hair, were 

unrecognizable out 



Mr R. 1 



•* ***;-'^r: o\\ , -Ju- funeral is to drive 

• 1 Hook of Moses, in a 



*' V 






^ 1 iry r ..• 



• H ■» 



""" •^•^" • Vessel without a lid be- 

:- - theorists give is that the 
"' : at being driven out of 
^ ■-:: vessel, which it could 

""• ■•"" ' '-^'ies are Ci)nsideied to- 

• '/ "• • -ver a student, with his 
^ J^~^ • . ' - '" '"<*ni as nonscnse.ami 

* *' • " - ^pade. he will be gravclv 

' ' :-:hology. Zeiis has a son, 

:^*- » 'i -sovereignty of the world 

\ -' * - }>' him. tear him to pieces 

'•* " ^ -i^" heart and brings it to 

" ^ '^ -■' the miscreants with his 

,: -ne original men. Accord- 

-. ::v^ne race, for something 

> ■ : -">: G.jd; on the other side 

tr.i laden with original sin, 

- : :\ the i Orphic religion, and by 

.- 1 who was slain and restored 

• • :ar:-5. and the Orphic dojjmas 
• ^' :: xr.d towards Asia, and everv 

^ " -"- extended. Shall we be 

1 * . :r.e whe whole oi New Testa- 

• * • . - 
*• , - ■ 

:: >rh.r for -.:r part. Herakles 
i* • -.:-:r::e G?j. an: his deeds and 

• :: ■-•r c-^--^- A^ain. in a traetdv 

• . .i- ...a. . .■. .:.r»..evi.-, ; t'. man- 

\ - • ffts-rs ur.:!: :i Ci:>.'. rrsolvfd to 

^ :-r :: :he d.-irk-r.-ss of Hades* 
:. -•■ ■ s rissstir :: re interpolavd in 

.-r •I'i ir*- one .:er:'.ed iir.:-i jt the 
- . - *':* -*" ''^-s >:?e the rese!::blance5. 

-:.::: ~e-er: w :h :hese Assyriolo 
: 1. :'-: 'i ZT.ztr <v.'CTznit ^ods of 
:•--:• vssrr. Mir.-j<; -.Myjan. 
. i?."*- -**: --.^rs could I say unto 

-., ::. ;<r:A"f-: a*.-?." Thene authors 

* ■ • ■ • 

* »^'s-•:':f i*- -e::fr i .-.jce-s: jr.viin^ pnra<c 

,.,. • r.i:- :r. Wrer :rev r.r.i nothing, 

i^" **• m\a .«• ».k *o.»r •-•■WW «^a\^ in inc 

•*•?!? oi»? A.s: be'orgs certainlv 

^... v-c: :^i- " -"" i:tr:r-:ev": :o Jesus, and 



: :l 



WVKY IN COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS. 373 

iis three days' time of the sojourn in the king- 

i;M(i must have belonged originally to the mooq 

•:^.i«.c days of the invisibility of the spring new 

• "list have been attributed only secondarily to the 

Let us just have a look at thia sophism by day- 

M.d Marduk is compared with Christ; the lormer 

MO be the sun god. Now with him there is no trace 

;.i\s' sojourn in the kingdom of the dead. Theie- 

•iMi must be laid under contribution, and it is sup- 

v brought over from her. So they now reason thus: 

lirist for three days, tjierefore also Marduk for three 

ii, to be sure, cannot be proved, and just for that 

probably not original, but it has all been carried- over 

moon to the sun in later times, yet still before the 

rra. Now can the three days be authenticated about 

i>n"r Not at all. In the passages to which we are re- 

;o occurs certainly as a sacred number of the moon- 

it we seek in vain for 3 in the texts. That is an imagi- 

.. izot elsewhere. 

• Revelation there are si^z'Cft candlesticks, seven spirits, 
:: ^mgcls; evidently the sc7'en planets of Babylonian astrol- 
Thc /oNr and twenty elders are the four ami tawnty star- 
s of the Babylonians. But where are the thirty other star- 
i^ and the tzvclvc who rule over them? Why is there noth- 
■^ corresponding to these? The four beasts of the Apoca- 
ypse. Lion, Eagle, Ox, and Man, are four constellations of the 
. odiac. But the constellation ot the Eagle does not belong to 
:he zodiac, and we can hardly, like our author, explain the man 
.IS the Scorpion. But even were all these identifications 
granted, would that prove that heathen mythology has pene- 
trated here? Not in the least. The modes of contemplation, 
in regard to numbers and forms, were, let me say once for all, 
the common Oriental ones, but the spirit is fundamentally 
different. The Apocalypse makes use of heathen numbers, 
just as it makes use of the originally heathen language of the 
Greeks. 



■f-f- - 



PROFESSOR CURTISS. 

Prof. S. Ives Curtiss of the Union Theological Seminary of 
Chicago has during the last three or four years taken several 
expeditions to Palestine, with the purpose of tracing the sur- 
vival of ancient Semitic worship in the shrines, sacred groves, 
and high places. This is all together a new line of archic- 
ological research, but one that has already yielded important 
result-. The worship upon mountains, on hills and tn-es was 
nothing new, for Abraham offeretl his son upon a mountain; 
Jacob offered a sacrifice before parting from Laban, upon Mt. 
Sinai God revealed himself to Moses. 



THirl AVr.ivlJAN AN FI* »I;a 



y m m. - ■ • 



.s . . . 



^ 1 1 - 


• 


■-: •:■! 




r- 


C-t 




»- 


r:.>e! 


« 


c 


TV a: 




* • 




ta 


• 


zTV 



~ r V ■ 



s. . ^ 



. \ 



» 



■■ lat 

. lou 

IJelt 

.red coi 

;»ment< 

. Ktid the 

: the day. 

::-: of Russi 

: Britain, an 

. . linked wi 

i :nu5rcgard« 

^--:-^rmphicalco 

rtilly inscparab 

zztTt were thci 

ciii^s or villages 

Lseless by Bunbui 

y treitise on t 

rcr-^-esc. in th 

: lis co-ntrv,aid 



^% 



"Tan- 



•*iriz»r exp'.oraiion 
NVrrciir' Owing 
: rr rrci-c: and p 



d sdeiH 




375 

od by 

lit pro- 

cially as 

uist hun- 

increased. 

n, Hal<?vy, 

md others, 

^'tcr invest!- 

knowledge is 



iihematically sur- 

ic littoral has been 

;e than guesses for 

LTvations of latitude 

in Yemen, are those 

!rs of the chief xnouD- 

A-advs have in no case 



- scant justice, especi- 

:k of Huber. who was 

i^ probable that the 

t the unknown areas at 

. Ill half a million square 

iliL" whole superficies of 

ihat demands the immedi- 

Acrful society whose motto 

c-asional lament over their 

• iild make them all the more 

lireat Britain's interest ought 

:v;//. 



- +■ 



IN THE BRITISH ML'SKL'M 

ilAI) BOSCAWEN. 

:Knt of the collections under the 

■■ the Egyptian Department of the 

^'reat progress. Stiil more iniport- 

. ptian art and history, has been the 

inportant section. Rich as the col- 

quities in the British Museum is. and 

pt that at Cairo, there were still some 

presented. Chief among these was the 

Dynasties, 3800-3200 B. C, generally 

I Age; a period of the greatest historical 

For, from a historical point of view, it 

riarchal, peaceful, feudal age — there being 

.uperial expansion such as flourished under 

iC only military operations being those for 

t the valuable mines and quarries in the 



37^ THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

sinaitic peninsula. In art it ;«ffords one of those strange para- 
doxes the East is so liberal in producing, for the art ot this 
period is far more beautiful and true to nature, far aiore care- 
fully executed, than at any other period. 

This is demonstrated by the small but extremely valuable 
collection now exhibited in the Egyptian vestibule at the east 
end of the main Egyptian gallery. Here we ha\:e a series of 
monuments and inscriptions which belong to the Pyramid Age 
from the second to the sixth dynasties. The earliest moqu- 
ment is one of particular interest. It is a sculptured panel 
from the tomb of an ofBcial named Shera. Shera lived early 
in the Third Dynasty, about 3800 B. C. and "Ka servant," or 
private priest, attached to the worship of the tombs of Per-ab- 
sen and Sent kings of the Second Dynasty. There is a por- 
tion of the sculptures of this tomb both in the Ashmolean 
Museum at Oxford and in the Cairo Museum. From these we 
learn further details of this official of nearly six thousand 
years ago. He was related to the royal family, as also was his 
wife Res Khentek. He was chief libationer and temple super- 
intendent. Shera is represented seated on his seat of office and 
holding his staff of office in his hand. This is the oldest his- 
torical Egyptian inscription in the Museum. There are a num- 
ber ot the funeral stele of officials who were attached to the 
mortuary chapels of the tombs and pyramids of the first 
Pharaons. Qerts. also a royal prince and judge, who calls 
himself •'royal son of his own body," was attached to the 
Pyramid of Senefra. There is also a fine stele of Khennu. who 
was priest of the pyramid of Menkaura — the third of the great 
pyramids. His titles are chief libationer, priest of Menkaura, 
royal relative over the secrets, devoted before the great God. 



•K + 



RECENT EXCAVATIONS AT CARTHAGE. 

• 

M. Gauckler, whose work in the excavations at Carthage is 
well known, has lately made an interesting di^covery, having 
found one of the most important constructions of the Roman 
epoch. This is the theatre where Apuleius held his confer- 
ences, which is often mentioned by Tertullian and St. August- 
ine. It seems that the edifice was built at the beginning of the 
second century A. IX, and was afterward destroyed by the Van- 
dals. No exact indications have been given as to the site of 
the edifice, which was often confounded with the Odeon, 
recently uncovered near by, and it was supposed to have been 
entirely destroyed. The present excavations now elucidate this 
problem. The first trench which was opened in the supposed 
axis of this theatre proves that the structure is preserved in a 
fairly complete state, buried under 25 feet of earth, and that its 
dimensions are colossal. At the present time the excavators are 
approachin^:^ the stage, and are beginning to discover the archi 
tectural decoration of the latter, with its capitals and cornices; 



TRANSFORMATION MYTHS. 

here is an clement in the mythology of America which is 
[ very interesting, but not often described. It may be called 



isformation," for ttiat is the word which best e 



fprtsses Its 



character. It consists in fhc constant overleaping of those 
barriers which, according to modern science, separate the 
various orders of creation, and treats them as though they did 
not exist: mingling birds, animals,' and human beings, as 
if they belonged to one order. The effect of this habit, or 
custom, is very peculiar, for it brings all the objects of nature, 
whether plants, trees, birds, animals, or human beings, indis- 
criminately together, and as a consequence there are many 
figures which are distorted and present a very strange appear- 
ance. Animals appear with human faces; human forms appear 
-AS having bird's wings, claws and beaks, but with arms and legs, 
CJiaving weapons in their hands, either fighting, or in the atti- 
vtude of dancing; nondescript figures appear made up of forms 
P of vegetation, such as trees, but surrounded by human figures, 
.and yet mingled with serpent's jaws and all the varying sym- 
bols which may come from the creation without. 

This element gives a great variety to native mythology, for 
there is nothing to prevent the stories which are told from 
transcending all material bounds. The imagination is given 
full play and the most extravagant tales are told, and seem to 
be believed, as though they were true. U is, however, not con- 

> fined to mythology, for it forms a prominent feature in many 
Teligious ceremonies. In these ceremonies, creatures resembl- 
ing animals, human beings and supernatural creatures are 
mingled together, and seem to be closely related. The animals 
do not themselves appea', but the persons who take part, arc 
■so covered and dressed that they resemble animals, and atti- 
tudes are taken which imitate the motions of the animals. It 
is an element which often appears in the relics and gives a 
peculiar character to aboriginal art. There art many speci- 
mens which show great taste tor colors and correct ideas of 
form, and much skill in representing form^ and faces; yet as a 
(act there are no limitations to hinder, and the strangest crea- 
tions appear. 

The same element of transformation also appears in all the 
secret societies, and forms a prominent part of all the sacred 
""piysteries. It also enters into the amusements, public dances, 
I open air performances, and gives to them their greatest 



I 




37* 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



r. zest. It exists among aU the tribes, but varies accordiag to their 

^ social condition and habits, for the hun'.er tribes have one sys- 
tem; the agricultural, another; the mountaineers, another, 
and those who dwell in the arid regions, still another, though 
the equipments and ceremonies of all pa'Uke of the physical 
pecutiantes of the region in which they take place. 
The strangest thing about this " transformation," is that it 



— J/jd-fiif/f 



the most elaborate and complicated figures appear where art 
and architecture are most ad^'anced, and where the people have 
attained to wealth and power. Illustrations of these-different 
points are numerous and are found among the various tribes. 
There are many stories told among the Crows, a tribe situated 
in the northern part of Montana, about the different animals, 
and especially the coyotes. These are turned to bufialos, bears, 
bulls, bald-headed eagles, and thunder birds. There are also 




Tins 

- also 

case. 

chiefs 

- ^one. 

ip pears 

and dis* 

dcd pair. 

. direciion 

:he two are 

lumerous at 

the huntinii^ 

nties of tomi 

animals and 

a boy whv^ was 

L s. He was letl 

■ her absence he 

iicen unknown to 

f him in the hv^usr 

came dancing out 

Lared to him. His 

world, also suddenly 

jr had become known 

and interesting stories 

different creatures be- 

: a! shapes, will account 

iich are found among the 

pecially the copper plates 

kcrous in the stone graves. 

h the beaks and win^s of 

elaborate headdress, pouch, 

tokens of victory in hand. 

les."or " eagle men," and are 

mythology which prevailed 

cs. (Sec Fig. I.) 

r. has represented the dances 

:idans. and Miss Alice Fletcher 

cur among the Dakotas. The 

sc dances is that the men appear 

:t'a'oes, or with the horns of deer 

^ into the different attitudes which 

personate their very shapes and 

Acst coast believe in this transforma- 
y often, in their dances and religious 
s upon their heads, and will march 
.loughout the long winter nights and 
jnusement in imagining themselves 



>U 



]8o THE AMERICAS ANTIQUARIAN. 

traoafonned into these very creatures. They have also a cete- 
mony la wtuch some person, who is hidden in an adjoining 
(oom, bursts throueb the barrier and suddenly appears in astrik- 
ingattitwlc. fSe«P1ates.l The best illustration isfoundaniong 
the NavajocStUnoDg whom the saad paintings are the most 
coASpicuons objects of native an. These consist of figures 
which represent the Nature powers. Rainbows which form arches 
tcscmhliag the arch of the sky. are bumanized. having heads 
and arms at one end. and body and legs at the other. There 
are sunbeam rafts in the form of crosses, made of different 
colored sand, and upon these are placed the figures of god- 
desses, which have many-colored skirts and wear caps or hats 




which arc trinowd with Oeecycioads: around their waists they 
wew sashes, which rvscBble laiobows; at their side are birds 
and •Dinuls whJck coMc tma tbc mountains, also, sprigs and 
sprays which cowc (roia tke forest. The sand paintings repre- 
scat the peraoeal diviwtM« of the Navajoes, and in this respect 
resemble the sacred dramas ol the Zaats and the codices of 
the Mayas. 

The ^qtures ts themt are EnMn the Dresden Codex and 
repfesent the Gods of Deatk, Life aad Growth, as well as the 
vanoits operatioBS of katvte. 

Tlie Pueblo tribes aim bdJere in this transformation, and 
cotbody th«ir betid m Aei* daaces asd cerenioaies in such a 
««y w to OMkc them Ibc most realistic of all the religious cei " 





EDITORIAL 



381 



monies that are known. Among this people are many so-called 
"altars," which resemble the "sand paintings,' in that they 
present a great variety of figures or symbols, and with all 
colors displayed upon them. These altars have been described 
by Mr. J. Walter Fewkcs. who explains their different parts. It 
appears that every clan had a great sky god, and an earth god. 
or goddess. Each clan also had its totemistic ancestors, male 
and female, and culture heroes, or heroines; these are Imper- 
sonated symbolically, and may be repiesented by a human be- 
ing, or by animals and birds, or by all combined, In these 
altars are medicine bowls covered with symbols, also radiating 
lines of sacred meal representing the six directions; ears of 
corn of different colors, which corresponded to the directions: 
Yellow, for north; blue, for west; red. for south; black, for the 
above, and speckled, (or the below. The altars are made out 
of wooden ^lats cut in shape to resemble the human form, but 
painted-with many different colors. A large number of them 
are placed upright, making them resemble an old-fashioned 
fire-place, while in front of them arc figures made of different- 
colored sand, surrounded by images of various kinds and ears 
of corn of different colors. They are called altars because 
they are objects of worship and are full of symbols. 

There are pictures of " the Growth God." and slats bearing 
symbolic birds; also boards painted with semi-circular figures 
representing the sky, parallel lines symbolizing rain, zigzag 
markings symbolizing lightning; also images which are the 
tutelary "clan ancients," and others representing the sun and 
"Germ Gods"; also the butterfly symbols, and many other 
objects. 

The public dances of the Hopis and other Pueblo tribes are 
also full of symbols and ceremonies, which are the result of 
this belief in transformation; End many different societies em- 
body the belief that supernatural beings were present. Mr. 
Fewkes recognizes strong affinities with the tribes further 
south, such as the Nahuas and Mayas, in these ceremonials, 
and traces a resemblance between the symbols common among 
them and those found in the codices. • 

Among the partially civilized tribes of the Southwest, 
mainly the Nahuas and Mayas, the same supersitition formerly 
prevailed, for here we find symbols of various kinds scattered 
among the ruins, and also see pictures with many colors and 
strange figures, in which there is a mingling of all orders of 
creation in the codices. In fact, this clement of transforma- 
tion is so prominent in Mexico and Central America, that it 
furnishes us a key to the solution of the problems which have 
been very difficult. 

There are in the codices figures which represent the different 

•S» "CeBtrml Aucrtciin CettBieay, whkh Suciciu Ihc Snik* Dune* of th> Tu»t>ii 
VUUcin." Rcprinwd Iram iht AmirlcaD Anihropolorit. WHOiiicton. D. C ; ige,. 

AIM, "A SladT or Citlua Fignni In ■ M>7> Cad»." Waihlag Igs, D C.,JutT.iS«4- 



Afa 

be: 



n skrietoo form ia strange 
pccaEar eX{jreuioas, but >rom 
toapKS. Other figures are 
T^ whole picture or page 
Cn>lesc|»c attitadcs. but all o( 
itwc can scarcely tell whether 
Bd n^naemt aaiMals. human beings, or 
y apc m the ■idit of hicroglvphics which 
■d Ae «arr of tke pML (SeeFtg. 2.) 
■cafcaliBasaaetlK codecs charts which conUin trees 
eaa at riiilii i. vitb Sovets at (he end of the branches. 
thetieesareUnbof (fiSereni kinds, while below may 
the itws of verpeats and ot jcr strange iigurcs. Repre- 





/^t;-. J — TAr Tm tf Uft Tr*m!/crmfd. 

sealatives of all the diHerent orders of creation are mingled 
together in a strange way. and yet make symbols which repre- 
sent periods of time and convey religious thoughts. 

It appears from this, that all the different kingdoms 
of nature are combined together and symbolized; the sky 
above, by the birds; the earth, by the plants and flowers; the 
realms below, by the dragons' or serpents' heads. The (out 
seasons were also represented by the four trees; the (our 
directions, or cardinal points, by the branches of the trees. 

There were many religious ceremonies, also among the 
partially civilized tribes, which depended upon this element 
of transformation for their effect, and there are even temples 
and palaces which present strange figures in their interior, in 
the sh^pe of crosses surmounted by birds, with a human form 
on either side, and contorted animals below them; the whole 



EDITORIAL. 



383 



symbolizing the Nature powers, and at the same time forming 
objects of worship. 

In studying th± symbols which are thus brought together 
in the calendars and codices we will find that nothing appears 
separate and distinct, for all the realms of nature are united; 
the Nature powers being generally represented by human 
creatures. It is remarkable that symbolism should have been 
■carried so far by these partially-civilized peoples, hut it must 
be remembered that pictographs and symbols took the place 
■of writing. The pictographs were historical records, but these 
charts were calendars, from which the priests and learned men 
reckoned the time. The employments of the people, as welt 
as their religious ceremonies, were regulated by the priests. 




00 




<B ® 



/"•jr- 



- The Tret of Lift Transformed. 



who studied these calendars and their symbols, and it is sup- 
posed by some that the astronomical events and long periods 
of time were recorded by them. The codices contain the best 
specimens of transformation, for in these the divinities are 
TCpreseated, generally by human figures in such a way that 
their sphere of action and character are plainly indicated. 
The transforniaiion is not so, apparent at first, yet the more we 
Study the codices and calendars, the more we realize that all 
the realms of creation are represented in them, but arc 
■strangely blended and interchanged. 

It will be noticed that there are. below the figures of the 
trees twenty different symbols, consisting of birds, animals, 
minerals, reptiles, house. &c. These arc grouped so as to re- 
present the twenty days of the month divided into four weeks 
■of five days each. We find in these symbols and the accom- 



384 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



panying pictographs, a chart which gives to us a pretty correct 
idea of the calendar which prevailed among the Mayas. 

It was, however, thi religious sentiment that gave signifi- 
cance to the symbols, for this threw a mysterious air over all 
the realms of creation, and mingled the natural with the super- 
natural. The study of the symbols convince us thai the same 
general principles which were embodied in the ceremonies and 
in the relics of the wild tribes were brought together in a small 
compass and presented to the eye by the mute symbols, which 
required c!ose study to understand and interpret. 

Interesting specimens of this transformation may be found 
in Nicaragua, for here we see idols, finished in the round but in 
singular attitudes, while upon their shoulders and above their 
heads may be seen the great jaws of crocodiles; and again 
other figures, with a semblance of bears, yet having human 
forms. This element of transformation appears even in the 
codices and sacred writings of the Mayas, for in them we sec 
rows of hieroglyphics, but between the rows are nondescript 
creatures, dressed with varied costumes and assuming different 
attitudes, but upon their heads they wear ornaments which arc 
in reality symbols. Their faces are very unnatural, for, while 
they have the eyes, nose, and mouth of human beings, there 
can be seen the serpent fangs and tongues and other strange 
symbols which transformed them into human beings. 

This element of transformation seems to have had effect 
upon the architecture of the region, for nearly all the palaces 
have facades on which are sculptured figures of plumed ser- 
pents, and above them are seated figures with glaring eyes and 
hooked noses, generally called the manitou face, and many 
barbaric ornaments, which can only be understood and ex- 
plained by the mythology which prevailed. We may say that 
the religious ceremonies, the mythologies, and the symbols of 
all the tribes cannot be understood, unless we take this element 
of transformation into account. By its aid, however, we may 
trace the connection between the different tribes and races, 
and learn that there was a mass of symbolism which was trani- 
mitled from the past. 

Discoveries are being made which'show the prevalence of 
this system. Even the best specimens of art seem to have been 
affected by it. The beautiful urns which have been recently 
exhumed in Nicaragua, are now in the possession of the Museum 
of Natural History of New York. 

It is worthy of notice that among the tribes of the North- 
west coast the chief divinity was called the "Transformer.'' 
Such, too, was the real character of the divinities of the Ny 
joes, the Zunis, and the various Pueblo tribes. 




RECENT DISCOVERIES. 



1^ pROTO-CORiNTHLAN fraKmcDti belonging to prehistoric and eirly his- 
:s have been found tx Aagiua. 
Gallo-Kguan Bxon^bs, including statuelles of Mercury and Mara, 
._ open hand, a dauphin, etc., are dow in Ihe museum of Mt. Belliard. 
France. 

i(i»'.— The remains of a Roman bridge across ihe Maiu 
r Krolienburg. One pier was discovered on shore and 



A KuMAN Bki 
Dave been found ni 
eighl under water. 

An Altak, re^ 
Doric half column!. 
■nd [loriico resemble those found 

AnTKMi*. — Tombi. forty- 



, witli 
ahar 



temple.' Tticy contain a few I 
A Laocoon relief on rei 
copy of the Laocofm group, li 
the figure of Herculta -- ' " 
subjects, with not the li 
A P- 



number, containing 

discovered at Rome, near the above 

t urns and a little bronze animal. 

ware from the Lazoui potteries, plainly a 

. ,., . _ been found. To the same potteries belong 

.lid [he Serpents, The potters know only pagan 

of pagan intluence. 

have formed the southern limit of the 



been found 
i large mass 
has been dit 


of cc 


the Arch of 


Ihe lime of 
iwo. simple! 

'all. date froi 


and 
Hoi 

n30C 


ner. Three 
1 to 700 B.C. 



Rome, during the late republic, 
Augustus, In Ihe central area of the Forum a 
posed to be the base ol a statue of Uomitun. 

Cremation.— The contemporary use o( 
were practised all over the Greek world alter 
uadisiurbed graves — one, a cremated burial; t 
discovered at Carnac. )ust outside the north w 

Chgti£. — The palace has been cleared, revealing an outer and inner 
court; a square hall, with seats on three sides and two stairways. A new 
part of the town has been uncovered, containing small, well-built houses, 
surrounded by paved itrcels, These were the results of excavations by 
Miss Boyd. 

Ge/.er. -A huge rock'cut cistirn belonging to the Maccaba^an period 
has been found by Mr. McAllister; also some Astarte plaque*, an evidence 
of sacrifices for the human foundation. The practice of human sacrifice 
in laying foundations seems to have been very widespread, for it prevailed 
even on the Northwest coast of this continent. 

A Baker's Shovel, such as is still in use for putting bread into the 
oven, was discovered in a recently excavated Roman well in the Saalbut >. 
Similar Instruments are represented on Roman frescoes. A silver coin of 
Antonius Pius, a bronze coin of the Empress Faustina, and a well-prc. 
served leather shoe were among the contents of the well. 

Sfeciueks [>I archaic dnd classic (ireek art, also Hellenistic, tltruscan. 
Roman. Tompciian, Egyptian, and Gallic, illustrating the life. art. and 
religion ol the ancient world, are gilhered into the museum at Berlin, 
called the Aquarium. The bronzes include dishes and basins of every 
kind, personal helmets, sandals, horse-lrappiiigs. and statuettes. 

A CttetiiSTOKIc Moi'NLi containing the calcined bones of animals, 
cattle, swine, sheep, goats and horses has been discovered, showing that 

f lace of sacrificeand (easting for many years. There were 
funeral feasts. The pottery belongs to the Bionie Age. Salt 
[f in the neighborhood suggest Ibe idea that it was a tribal center. 



it was 

mill 



3% THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Cnossus.^A telegram from Artbor Erans to Tfu yoHan^ May, 1904, 
relate! to the discovery of a great mausoleum, with a lofty Cyclopean gate, 
but approached by an arched passage. The grave probably was built for 
one of the Minotaurs. A rich deposit of inscribra tablets and arrows 
relating to chariots and arrows, and a horde of bronze arrow heads, with 
remains of chests and official ceilings. 

A Roman Mosaic— A large mosaic pavement, with an ornamental 
border enclosing three rectangular spaces, surrounded by four hexagons 
and pentagons, also octagons, has been found at Tyre. The octagons con- 
tain heads of Athens and Hermes, and the winged heads of wind gods. 
There are six rectangles containing a standing male figure in Greek cos- 
tumes, apparently portraits of philosophers or literary men. 

THtKNiciAN and Cvprian art. and also late Mycenaean, Rhodiin, 
Corinthian, Attic, and Hellenistic art, are found in the museams of Frey- 
berg, Batten, and Colmer, Germany. The Mycenaean belong to the geo- 
metric transition; others belong to the Augustan period. A good bMr's 
head of bronze and a bronze statuette of Mercury belong to the Roman 
period. A tlute player was found at Freyberg; it has a bronze figure sar 
rounilfd by a ^■'^^^^P ^^ geometric pyramid idols. 



-1-+ 



AKCH/EObOGICAb NOTES. 



Vn.i.Aiif. Si IKS IN Ontario. — Mr. Andrew F. Hunter has been ex- 
ploring the village sites of Ontario, and has published the results in the 
Ontario An li,rolo>;ical Reports for I902-3-4. 

('•AMI Dkivis. One interesting result of Mr. Hunter's explorations 
ha*' bc( n to i ontirin Cfiamplain's description of game drives. The method 
ol hunting; (U't-r w.is by staking out a large space in the ivoods, with an 
AU^U* into w \\\y \\ tlic* ^aiiic was driven. The same method was also used in 
making: \\A\ \\cii>. the stakes being driven into thi water. Mr. Hunter 
thinks th.it the name "Hurdle Lake" cam« from the fact that such fish 
wrii>. \wm\v out i>f stakes driven into the water, were discovered there at 
an cat l\ J air 

Tin I \M OK IMF MoHKCANS. — Popular opinion has it that the last 
of ihr Mohoi;an Indians perished somewhere back in the century before 
iho last, w hrn I'ncas. |. Kenimore Cooper's hero, was slain by the treacher- 
ous Huiv»n. M.i>;ua. Popular opinion would, therefore, be surpiised could 
\\ take a uip iv> the »vMonv of Mohegan, several miles south of the city of 
NvMw ii •'. r,»nn . aiu! there see the *' Last of the Mohegans." Some fifty or 
^)\t> ot this >aiur illtatcd tribe inhabit the rocky pastures and barren hills, 
uhcH.tn t.ninri tnuos. the (lark forests cast their shade and gave their 
st\t lioi to iho \mM oio.aures that afforded such bountiful subsistence to the 
u-Jjiun I he pnnirxal forests are jjone. but not the Mohegans; for although 
tlu'N ha\o V l\ance*l. thuuich suiroundings and civilization, they are, never- 
thrUs-. i!ix Moh«-^ai\s. Kcd skins, straight black hair, high cheekbones, 
an. I x;\iiv K exes .no all there now as they were in the days of "sunjum" 
I ux AN ouli*:'.xko rhe\ au\ however, no longer hunters and warriors; for 
(aitu<n»: .\\\y\ r.x'.UNir.il labor ha> e replaced the primitive occupations. — The 



\'.-». 



I 'u \n Vio^ ' tA v^K i.'i\ n I.- A I ION. "The First of Empires. Babylon," 
Iw Nj V !^ ui lioNv atfcv'M. ;> a book whioh brings knowledge up to recent find- 
ni>;- I ■^»' \.'ihvM !i.i\N Frulu anil Tr. two of the older cities, were formerly 
^ ',o>%' 10 ;'*.' N, .\ >.;• A\t now A iwindrovi miles distant from it, by the increase 
o! th%* o.%'.:.« ai'.Js, \\ h'.vt* svMiu' place at a mile in thirty years; others say 
*i\i\ \».»!^ ;J'aN ;Mo\in»: liow oKi thev are. The prehistoric settlement at 
tVo.v !'.i c \o.\*'. sVon th.xt the islaPils anii the Persian Mountains were occu- 
py-, < i»\ "v.. ' ;u*o t?vc av.d pal.rolitV.ic times, when the Persian Gulf ez- 
tsmlrxl \ .\^ oiilcs tuithei up the valley than at present. There was here in 



ARCH^OLOGICAL NOTES. 387 

olden times a subsidence of land, which may have given rise to the deluge 
legends of the people. The oldest inscriptions yet found are those of Sip- 
purah.at Telloh The agriculture of the Sumerian goes back to 4500 B. C., 
and was thi;n practised in great perfection; but Elam was highly cultivated 
before Babylonia, and it was the indigenous home of wheat, also the vine 
and olive were grown there. The inscriptions there, were derived from the 
Babylonians about the time of Sargon, the first, in 3800 B. C. There are 
many interesting facts in this well written book. 

Bone Cave. — Prof. George F. Wright describes in the Records of the 
Past for July, the bone caves m Sicily. The most celebrated of these are 
at Palermo. This cave is 130 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 20 high The 
quantity was so great that 20 tons were shipped to Marseilles. The accu- 
mulation shows that at a recent geological period herds of hippopotamus 
and elephants covered the plain on which Palermo stood. The bones were 
mostly those of hippopotamus, with a few elephant, ox and deer. 

"Transformation" Among the Tribes of the Northwest 
Coast. — The Journal of the Anthropological Institute for May- June, 1904* 
contains the Report of Chas. Hill-Tout on the tribes of British Colum- 
bia, especially the Siciatl and' the Kwakiutl. Among other things,, the 
writer brings out many illustrations of what we have called "Transforma- 
tion." It appears that the mythology of this region is full of stories of 
men and women, and even children, who have the faculty of changing the 
animals and birds, and even marrying them. One story is told of two 
children who had been kept secluded all their days, until they became 
young men. After they appeared, the young women were anxious to have 
intercourse and to marry, but they resisted. One of them, however, was 
charmed by a seal, which appeared several times above the water and 
finally came near the canoe and nssumed the form of a young woman. One 
of the young men followed her, and dived down into the water and stayed 
with the seals. The young men, who had been secluded so mysteriously, 
were supposed to possess supernatural powers. The Siciatl believe that 
the raven foretells the death of anyone. • 



lolTERARY NOTES. 



Science of Man is the journal of the Royal Anthropological Society of 
Australia, and is edited by Dr. A. Carroll, Ph. D. The June number con- 
tains an article giving the aboriginal dialects and place names by Geo. W. 
Leney; also one on "Paleolithic Man in Australia" by Georgina King. The 
other articles are of a more general character. It is fortunate that so early 
in the history of the island this work has been undertaken, for so many 
changes are taking place that the facts and the real condition of the abor- 
igines fail to be recorded. 

Atlantic Monthly, October, /(?o/. -This journal keeps up to the standard 
and is both interesting and instructive. The article upon •;English Style as 
affected by Typewriters and Machinery," is of interest to an archaeologist. 
The same can be said of the article " Books, New and Old, and Clothes, 
Past and Present." 



■♦►-f- 



IN MEMORIAM. 

Dr. John Fraser, an esteemed frienc^and a valuable contributor to 
The American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal, whose home 
was at West Maitland, New South Wales, died on the 2nd of May, 1904, at 
Ambrym, one of the New Hebrides group. He was an excellent scholar 
and an accomplishtid gentleman. His contributions to anthropology were 
always instructive. 



BOOK REVIEWS. 



Thr TmrnvTiAM Stam-Cbabt or Salcahathua. By StanalMny Hafar, 
Secrcur^ of the DepAitiMst of Aichxoloffy. Bfwiklyii Insthme of 
Aftuid 




Mr. Hagv is atfcu ti ty oa the sobioct of tho Pcraviaa utronoiny, if it 
caa bo so called. The payer read before the C oMgres do Americanistes is 
of fffeat imortaoce. for it shows the different coastellations which were 
familiar to the Pcrvtnaas. The scheow off the chart is as lollows: t. SooA 
Pole: 3. Cross: ^ Coiversal Spirit; 4. Sob; S- Momiag Star; '6, Mooa; 7. 
Etcmos^ Star; S. Ca|viror«: ^ Aries: la Libra: ii. Caitcer: 12, Virfo; 13. 
Safitianos:' m. Gemioi; 15. Pisces: i6l Taarvs: 17. Leo: 18L AqoArios: igb 
The first three are pecoliar to the FeraviaBs; the foUowiBf fo«r 
oa to all mankiad; the rematahig are cosstellatioiis which were 
totheiahabitaBtsof Babviowa at a very early date» perhaps as early 
>BlC 

Theaathoroff the paasphlet ■untaiBS that the saase were fbuid ia the 
Perariaa zodiac bet ooder the other aaaes. 

Leo has the form of a pama. ThcKisacloadlikecoBStellatiQO»which 
takes the place off the Pleiades. ThcK are oa the chart two figvres t^ 
rcaeoible the Gemini. There is ao sach figuc as Vlffow or Libra, or 
Aqaanos, or Scorpio, that we caa idcauffy. The siga Sagittarias is vepre- 
seatedby foorstArsformiagaaortof aqaare or cross^ over which tfbe laM 
caa be dnwa represean^ the arrows. The whole figore is the panllcUo- 
gram of Orioa. 

The stodics off the aathor are very sa ggeau fe aad laterestia^, aad 
probabdT Till lead to the dere^optneat vhich aiar prore that the prehistoric 
iababitants of Per^ eriit^rated f*033 the Easterr hemisphere, and brooghl 
with them a know.edj e ci ast»o<^fT. 



FrsERAi I'ass frov Oaxa.-a. Bt Marsha: H.Sa«ilie. Author's Edi- 
tkm. Extracted irc^zc the AsencAn Museum Joamal. Vot. IV., pp. 
4Q-to. New Vcrk ixTi 

This is a verT interest mg aad >:as::ful pamphlet. The illustrations 
are rery nnely wrought. Oae can hardiv rea'.-:e the pcrfectioo to which the 
an of pottery was carr ci bv tr.c people tormerly dwelling in Mexico. It 
is superior to that o: the Ff t.:-* .ars. Soxe of the potterr portraiu are Yerr 
striking, these soeciater.s were taken frorr! ancient tombs in the Valley of 
OasacA. Some o: the vesse'.s arr :'::.'. ot s>mbolism and represent AOiinAl 
ftgnres: others baman r^iT-res: and sti' others, hnman ncnres distorted so 
as to represent the 5uper=a:u*a bene, the s«mbo!ism of the serpent's 
tongne and the manitou eve. a^i r:he^ f.c^'es which are suggest ive of the 
rapematural. 

FaiVUDTSi? ^F TVS Aver:. -AN Anti.^iar:a?i Society. Part XVII.. 

Vol. i:. 

An artic'.f :r. t> 5 :.u:r.SeT treats o: the :::\:h5 and supers.! itions of the 
Orei:oa Indian*. »r::ter. by 'A" si. 1^. L\=:aii mhv>se bro'her has written a 
hisiorv ot Orec.T.. r>e ar: de ccr:a -> =:an> sugfrestire hints The 
writer rr.ainta _< :r.At the ltiiiar.$ are >: \::.c:s». re<emblmg the Greeks, 
Hindoo's anc Te-:or.5 S-t :hc> r.i'. ; i n.-.-'t^cistic idea. Tbey believe in a 
kind of incarna: w^s l:ke :h*: c: the H:r.icv-* \et thev soprose that their 
shadow-s are mar.festatiors o: TjiTnan.^wAf. .i-i the tcood animals and birds 
are the fonas which the beneT..->r.t de t:e« ai^zzme. The lodiAns of the 



, BOOK REVIEWS. 389 

Columbia basin have creatioo legcndn. The origin of fire is cHebraied and 
spoken o( in mjlhology. and tlie most beautiful of all fire myths is the one 
connected with the famous Tamanowas bridge at (he cascades of the 
Columbia Ri»er. The strtiK^les of the good deilici aRainst the bad is an- 
other feature. Among the most intetesing and beautiful of ihe stones are 
those connected wiih ibe great mountain peaks. The writer maintains (hat 
there is a belief in a' future slate. It is a valuable contribution. 

ARcH«:oLOf;irAL Resbakches in Yucataw. Reporis of Kxplorations 
for (be Museum. Hy Edward H. Thompson. Memoirs of the Pea- 
body Museum of American Archieology and F.(hnoiojiy. Harvard 1 'ni- 
lersitv. Vol.111., No, r. Cambridge: Published by the Museum, i-joj. 

This is another of the valuable ni 
the Peabody Museum. Mr. I'hompso 
*ing excellent work in Yucatan, rhe explorations aescriDCQ in mis memoir 
are mainly in (hi: Chultunes and the ruins in Yucatan. A palac*? resembl- 
ing that at Labna is described and represented by a plate. This palace 
resembles those which were previously discovered, as i( is characterized 
hy a long fai;ade which is ornamented bv spindle-shaped columns above (he 
cornice and solid pillars in the gateways. One chamber has an arched roof 
similar to (hose at Palenque, Chichen-ltza. and elsewhere. The stucco 
paintings upon a stucco covered wall repreient human figures, decsratcd 
with a band about the waists, and carrying baskets on their heads. These 
are frescoed in very delicate colors — pink and blue — and reveal a taste for 
colors reaembling thai of other tribes. 

Exploration ok Mounds, Coahoma Coomty, Mississippi. By Charles 
Peabody, Papers of ihi' Peabody Museum of American Archaeology 
and Ethnology, Harvard Universilv, Vol. III., Xo. 2. Cambridge. 

Published by the Museum, iqot. 

The Peabody Museum has begun an exploraiion on what is new ground 
in Mississippi, on land which i* overflowed by the river. This furnishes a 
reason for the building of mounds, especially large mounds. The builders 
of these mounds are not known, (hough the region was occupied by the 
Choctaws until about 1830. One mound in Oliver county yielded a large 
number of relics, mainly pottery vessels; some of them shallow dishes. 
deep vasei, pots with handles, round vessels resembling modern tea kettles 
with spouts; also bottles with decorations on (he outside, triune bolllei with 
three long necks (oining one spout, a large number of ilonr axes and spear 
heads, small beautiful arrow points, various bone relics, such as needles and 
awls, and a number of skeletons, li is well that the museum has entered 
this field, for we wilt probably have further reports of explorations, which 
will be carefully carried out, and the reports will bc given in a definite form 
and sent to specialists for comparison with other finds. 



I OF Jacob's Cavern, McDonalu County, Missouri. 
Bv Chas. Peabody and W. K. Moorehead. Phillips Acadamy, Andover. 
Mass., Bulletin No. 1; igo4. 

This bulletin contains the account of the arcli:eological explorations in 
■he cave called Jacob's Cavern, about which so much has heen written. It 
appears that in this cavern Ioad-s(ool stalactites and stalagmites have been 
found, which were somewhat numerous. Within them were ashes, mingled 
with bones, flint, and charcoal. Thousands of Hint flakes were found, which 
are supposed 10 have been carried into (he cave, or produced by human 
agency within it, it is uncertaiTi which. Six human burials, bundle type. 
h»d taken place. Large implements were lacking; fragments of pottery 
were present; nothing indicated great antiquity. No bones of extinct ani- 
iBk.it were fouid, though Ihe types of stone implements are quite different 



590 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

from those in the neighborhood. Outside of the carem are large rocks 
polished apparently by the naked bodies or the skin clothing of human be- 
ings, which mdicated a long occupation. At Eden Bluff are pictographs 
containin{^ the usual cosmic s}rmbols. The Osages were the occupants of 
this region at the opening of history, but it U uncertain whether the relics 
wkre left by them, or by a preceding tribe. 

This is the first report of the new museum established at Andover, 
Mass., and it is devoted entirely to the exploration of this one locality. 



Thb Oraibi Summer Snake Ceremony. By H. R. Voth. Chicago: 
Field Columbian Museum Publication, No. 83, Vol. III., No. 4 

The Stanley McCormick Hopi Expedition. Bv George A. Dorsey. 
Chicago: Field Columbian Museum Publication, No. 83, vol. III,« No. 4. 

This report is elaborately illustrated. The plates in it are from photo- 
graphs, and are. much better than those given in a previous report. They i 
bring out the attitudes of the chief actors in tbe snake dance, and give to 
us an idea of the appearance of the country, the features and dress of the 
-natives, the peculiar decoration of the dancers and their various attitudes, 
and all of the scenes which take place fin connection with the snake dance, 
lliere are 70 plates in this report, and 219 in all, which, with the reports, 
ffive an excellent idea of this grewsome ceremony. The expense of pub- 
lishing these reports and plates is borne by Mr. Stanley McCormick of 
Chicago. 

American Journalof Arch iEOLogy, Archaeological Institute of AmericRf . 
Scries II., Vol. VIII.. No. 2. 

This number contains an article by Benjamin Powell upon the history 
and topography of Omiadae, which was one of the first cities to develop 
near Athens. It is a fortified wall town in the fifth century B. C The illus- 
trations show gates with cyclopean walls. The history of the development 
of the ar^h is beautifully illustrated by the cuts, for in one we have a gate 
with a massive stone placed above gigantic piers In another gate, the 
great stones formtng ihe sides, overlap one another and come to a point at 
the top, with a single stone. for its covering. Another has straight sides, 
but the arch is made by three massive stones, which are cut into the form 
of an arch. Still another has a straight side, but the arch is formed by a 
single massive stone, made into an arcn . Only one. out of them all, has the 
gateway, with the stones beveled so as to form the true arch, and this is 
without the keystone. 



BOOKS RECEIVED. 

Revista de la Real Academio de Ciencas Exactas Fisicas y Naturalis 
de Madrid. Tomo I. Numero 8. Madrid: Imprenta de la Gaceta de 
Madrid, 1904. 

Field Columbian Museum Publication No. 84. Anthropological Series, 
Vol. VI.. No. I. "The Oraibi Oagol Ceremony" by H. R. Voth; "The 
Stanley McCormick Hopi Expedition " by George A. Dorsey; " The Oraibi 
Soyal Ceremony " by George A. Dorsey and H. R. Voth.